Australia

Australia
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Australia (disambiguation).
Commonwealth of Australia
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Advance Australia Fair"[N 1]
Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"
Capital Canberra
Largest city Sydney
Official language(s) None[N 2]
National language English (de facto)[N 2]
Demonym Australian, Aussie[3][4]
Government Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy
 -  Monarch Elizabeth II
 -  Governor-General Quentin Bryce
 -  Prime Minister Julia Gillard
Legislature Parliament
 -  Upper House Senate
 -  Lower House House of Representatives
Independence from the United Kingdom 
 -  Constitution 1 January 1901 
 -  Statute of Westminster 11 December 1931 
 -  Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 9 October 1942 (with effect from 3 September 1939) 
 -  Australia Act 3 March 1986 
Area
 -  Total 7,617,930 km2 (6th)
2,941,299 sq mi 
Population
 -  2011 estimate 22,756,682[5] (50th)
 -  2006 census 19,855,288[6] 
 -  Density 2.8/km2 (233rd)
7.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate
 -  Total $918.978 billion[7] (18th)
 -  Per capita $40,836[7] (12th)
GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate
 -  Total $1.507 trillion[7] (13th)
 -  Per capita $66,983[7] (5th)
Gini (2006) 30.5[8] (medium) 
HDI (2011) increase 0.929[9] (very high) (2nd)
Currency Australian dollar (AUD)
Time zone various[N 3] (UTC+8 to +10.5)
 -  Summer (DST) various[N 3] (UTC+8 to +11.5)
Drives on the left
ISO 3166 code AU
Internet TLD .au
Calling code +61

Australia (play /əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia,[10] is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.[N 4] It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.

For at least 40,000 years[12] before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians,[13] who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups.[14][15] After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.

On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Since Federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system which functions as a federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The federation comprises six states and several territories. The population of 22.7 million is heavily concentrated in the Eastern states and is highly urbanised.

A highly developed country, Australia is the world's thirteenth largest economy and has the world's sixth-highest per capita income. Australia's military expenditure is the world's twelfth largest. With the second-highest human development index globally, Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights.[16] Australia is a member of the G20, OECD, WTO, APEC, UN, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, and the Pacific Islands Forum.

Contents

Etymology

Pronounced [əˈstɹæɪljə, -liə] in Australian English,[17] the name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning "southern". The country has been referred to colloquially as Oz since the early 20th century.[N 5] Aussie is a common colloquial term for "Australian".

Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to Roman times and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Following European discovery, names for the Australian landmass were often references to the famed Terra Australis.

The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Master Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name Austrialia del Espíritu Santo for an island in Vanuatu.[22] The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south.[23] Australia was later used in a 1693 translation of Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe, a 1676 French novel by Gabriel de Foigny, under the pen-name Jacques Sadeur.[24] Referring to the entire South Pacific region, Alexander Dalrymple used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1771. By the end of the 18th century, the name was being used to refer specifically to Australia, with the botanists George Shaw and Sir James Smith writing of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland" in their 1793 Zoology and Botany of New Holland,[25] and James Wilson including it on a 1799 chart.[26]

The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who pushed for it to be formally adopted as early as 1804. When preparing his manuscript and charts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis, he was persuaded by his patron, Sir Joseph Banks, to use the term Terra Australis as this was the name most familiar to the public. Flinders did so, but allowed himself the footnote:

"Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."[27]

This is the only occurrence of the word Australia in that text; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown's General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown makes use of the adjectival form Australian throughout,[28]—the first known use of that form.[29] Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name: the name came gradually to be accepted over the following ten years.[30] Lachlan Macquarie, a Governor of New South Wales, subsequently used the word in his dispatches to England, and on 12 December 1817 recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted.[31] In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.[32]

History

Main article: History of Australia
Map of Australia with coloured arrows showing the path of early explorers around the coast of Australia and surrounding islands
Exploration by Europeans till 1812
  1606 Willem Janszoon
  1606 Luis Váez de Torres
  1616 Dirk Hartog
  1619 Frederick de Houtman
  1644 Abel Tasman
  1696 Willem de Vlamingh
  1699 William Dampier
  1770 James Cook
  1797–1799 George Bass
  1801–1803 Matthew Flinders

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago,[33] possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now South-East Asia. These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century, most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers.[34]

Following sporadic visits by fishermen from the Malay Archipelago,[35] the first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent were attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula on an unknown date in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York, near the modern town of Weipa.[36] The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of "New Holland" during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement.[36] William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer landed on the north-west coast of Australia in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip. In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain.[37] Cook's discoveries prepared the way for establishment of a new penal colony. The British Crown Colony of New South Wales was formed on 26 January 1788, when Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet to Port Jackson.[38] This date became Australia's national day, Australia Day. Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825.[39] The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1828.[40]

Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.[41] The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia.[42] South Australia was founded as a "free province"—it was never a penal colony.[43] Victoria and Western Australia were also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts.[44][45] A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848.[46]

A calm body of water is in the foreground. The shoreline is about 200 metres away. To the left, close to the shore, are three tall gum trees; behind them on an incline are ruins, including walls and watchtowers of light-coloured stone and brick, what appear to be the foundations of walls, and grassed areas. To the right lie the outer walls of a large rectangular four-storey building dotted with regularly spaced windows. Forested land rises gently to a peak several kilometres back from the shore.
Port Arthur, Tasmania was Australia's largest gaol for transported convicts.

The indigenous population, estimated at 750,000 to 1,000,000 at the time of European settlement,[47] declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.[48] The "Stolen Generations" (removal of Aboriginal children from their families), which historians such as Henry Reynolds have argued could be considered genocide,[49] may have contributed to the decline in the Indigenous population.[50] Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by conservative commentators such as former Prime Minister John Howard as exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons.[51] This debate is known within Australia as the History wars.[52] The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum.[53] Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") before European occupation.[54]

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s,[55] and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience.[56] Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.[57] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs,[58] defence,[59] and international shipping.

A balding man wearing a suit and playing a bugle, while standing in front of a crowd of other people and a stone monument.
The Last Post is played at an ANZAC Day ceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in most suburbs and towns.

On 1 January 1901 federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting.[60] The Commonwealth of Australia was established and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was constructed.[61] The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911.[62] In 1914, Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Liberal Party and the incoming Labor Party.[63] Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front.[64] Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[65] Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action.[66][67] The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.[68]

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942,[69] but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II.[70][71] The shock of the UK's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector.[72] Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty.[73] After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted.[74] As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self-image were transformed.[75] The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London.[76] In a 1999 referendum, 55 per cent of Australian voters and a majority in every Australian state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972,[77] there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations, while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies and trading partners.[78]

Governance

Main articles: Government of Australia, Politics of Australia, and Monarchy of Australia
A large white and cream coloured building with grass on its roof. The building is topped with a large flagpole.
Parliament House, Canberra was opened in 1988, replacing the provisional Parliament House building opened in 1927.

Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a federal division of powers. It uses a parliamentary system of government with Queen Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen resides in the United Kingdom, and she is represented by her viceroys in Australia, (the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level), who by convention act on the advice of her ministers. Supereme executive authority is vested by the constitution of Australia in the sovereign, but the power to exercise it is conferred by the constitution specifically to the Governor-General.[79][80] The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's reserve powers outside a Prime Minister's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.[81]

The federal government is separated into three branches:

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).[83] The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population,[84] with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats.[85] Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years, simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.[83]

A large Australian flag flying against the blue sky.
Australia's National Flag comprises the Union Jack, the Commonwealth Star, and the Southern Cross.

Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT, which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction,[86] as is enrolment (with the exception of South Australia).[87] Although the Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor-General, in practice the party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms government and its leader becomes Prime Minister.[citation needed]

There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party, and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party.[88][89] Independent members and several minor parties—including the Greens and the Australian Democrats—have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses.

Following a partyroom leadership challenge, Julia Gillard became the first female Prime Minister in June 2010.[90] The last federal election was held on 21 August 2010 and resulted in the first hung parliament in over 50 years. Gillard was able to form a minority Labor government with the support of independents.

States and territories

Main article: States and territories of Australia
Perth Adelaide Melbourne Canberra Sydney Brisbane Darwin Hobart Tasmania Australian Capital Territory Australian Capital Territory Western Australia Northern Territory South Australia Queensland New South Wales Victoria Tasmania Great Australian Bight Tasman Sea Indian Ocean Coral Sea Indonesia Papua New Guinea Gulf of Carpentaria Arafura Sea East Timor Timor Sea Great Barrier Reef
A clickable map of Australia's states and mainland territories

Australia has six states—New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia—and two major mainland territories—the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In most respects these two territories function as states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including those over schools, state police, the state judiciary, roads, public transport, and local government, since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51.[91]

Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT, and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier, and in each territory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; and in the Northern Territory, the Administrator.[92] In the Commonwealth, the Queen's representative is the Governor-General.[93]

The federal parliament directly administers the following territories:[82]

Norfolk Island is also technically an external territory; however, under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 it has been granted more autonomy and is governed locally by its own legislative assembly. The Queen is represented by an Administrator, currently Owen Walsh.[94]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Australia and Australian Defence Force
A group of Australian soldiers with rifles moving along a path in a wooded area
Australian Army soldiers conducting a foot patrol during a joint training exercise with US forces in Shoalwater Bay (2007).

Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, and in 2011 will attend the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for cooperation.[95]

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation.[96][97][98] It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.[99][100] Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization,[101][102] and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia – United States Free Trade Agreement[103] and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand,[104] with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia – China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan,[105] South Korea in 2011,[106][107] Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement, ASEAN – Australia – New Zealand Free Trade Area, and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.

Along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia, and Singapore, Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism,[108] and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5 billion for development assistance;[109] as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that recommended in the UN Millennium Development Goals. Australia ranks seventh overall in the Center for Global Development's 2008 Commitment to Development Index.[110]

Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army, and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 80,561 personnel (including 55,068 regulars and 25,493 reservists).[111] The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government.[112] Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief, while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence.

In the 2010–11 budget, defence spending was A$25.7 billion,[113] representing the 14th largest defence budget in the world but accounting for only 1.2 per cent of global military spending.[114] Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief, and armed conflict; it currently has deployed approximately 3,330 defence force personnel in varying capacities to 12 overseas operations in areas including East Timor, Solomon Islands and Afghanistan.[115]

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia, and Geology of Australia
Australia divided into different colours indicating its climatic zones
Climatic zones in Australia, based on the Köppen climate classification.

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi)[116] is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indian[N 4] and Pacific oceans, it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas. The world's smallest continent[117] and sixth largest country by total area,[118] Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent",[119] and is sometimes considered the world's largest island.[120] Australia has 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),[121] and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.[122] Excluding Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S, and longitudes 112° and 154°E.

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef,[123] lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith,[124] is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006 ft).[125]

Australia is the flattest continent,[126] with the oldest and least fertile soils;[127][128] desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The driest inhabited continent, only its south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate.[129] The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world,[130] although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline.[131]

Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range that runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales, and much of Victoria—although the name is not strictly accurate, as in parts the range consists of low hills and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 metres (5,249 ft) in height.[132] The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.[132][133] These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland. The northern point of the east coast is the tropical rainforested Cape York Peninsula.[134][135][136][137]

Map showing the topography of Australia, showing a some elevation in the west and very high elevation in mountains in the southeast
Topographic map of Australia

The landscapes of the northern part of the country—the Top End and the Gulf Country behind the Gulf of Carpentaria, with their tropical climate—consist of woodland, grassland, and desert.[138][139][140] At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. South and inland of these lie more areas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands.[141][142][143] At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia; prominent features of the centre and south include the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast.[144][145][146][147]

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.[148][149] These factors induce rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical predominantly summer rainfall (monsoon) climate.[150] Just under three quarters of Australia lies within a desert or semi-arid zone.[151] The southwest corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate.[152] Much of the southeast (including Tasmania) is temperate.[150]

Environment

Main article: Environment of Australia
A =koala holding onto a eucalyptus tree with its head turned so both eyes are visible
The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair

Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85 per cent of flowering plants, 84 per cent of mammals, more than 45 per cent of birds, and 89 per cent of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic.[153] Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755 species.[154]

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions, wattles replace them in drier regions and deserts as the most dominant species.[155] Among well-known Australian fauna are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra.[155] Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.[156] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE.[157] Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after first human settlement,[158] including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.[159][160]

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species.[161] The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.[162] Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems;[163][164] 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention,[165] and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established.[166] Australia was ranked 51st of 163 countries in the world on the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.[167]

Climate change has become an increasing concern in Australia in recent years,[168] with many Australians considering protection of the environment to be the most important issue facing the country.[169] The Rudd Ministry has initiated several emission reduction activities;[170] Rudd's first official act, on his first day in office, was to sign the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations.[171] Rainfall in Australia has slightly increased over the past century, both nationwide and for two quadrants of the nation,[172] while annual mean temperatures increased significantly over the past decades.[173] Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.[174][175]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Australia
See also: Economic history of Australia and Median household income in Australia and New Zealand
A deep opencut mine in which some roads can be seen, the dirt is a rusty colour
The Super Pit gold mine in Kalgoorlie, Australia's largest open cut mine.[176]

Australia has a market economy with high GDP per capita and low rate of poverty. The Australian dollar is the currency for the nation, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu. After the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange is now the ninth largest in the world.[177]

Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (2010),[178] Australia is the world's thirteenth largest economy and has the ninth highest per capita GDP; higher than that of the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Canada, Japan, and the United States. The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2010 Human Development Index and first in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index.[179] All of Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys;[180] Melbourne reached first place on The Economist's 2011 World's Most Livable Cities list, followed by Sydney, Perth, and Adelaide in sixth, eighth, and ninth place respectively.[181] Total government debt in Australia is about $190 billion.[182] Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the highest household debt levels in the world.[183]

World map showing the distribution of Australian goods
Destination and value of Australian exports in 2006[184]

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australia's terms of trade since the start of the century, due to rising commodity prices. Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7 per cent of GDP negative, and has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years.[185] Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6 per cent for over 15 years, in comparison to the OECD annual average of 2.5 per cent.[185] There are differing opinions based on evidence as to whether or not Australia had been one of the few OECD nations to avoid experiencing a recession during the late 2000s global financial downturn.[186][186][187] Six of Australia's major trading partners had been in recession which in turn affected Australia, and economic growth was hampered significantly over recent years.[188][189]

The Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financial system.[190] The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry.[191] The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10 per cent Goods and Services Tax (GST).[192] In Australia's tax system, personal and company income tax are the main sources of government revenue.[193]

In July 2011, there were 11,450,500 people employed, with an unemployment rate of 5.1 per cent.[194] Youth unemployment (15–24) rose from 8.7 per cent to 9.7 per cent over 2008–2009.[195] Over the past decade, inflation has typically been 2–3 per cent and the base interest rate 5–6 per cent. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, accounts for about 70 per cent of GDP.[196] Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool, minerals such as iron-ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal. Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3 per cent and 5 per cent of GDP respectively, they contribute substantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, the US, South Korea, and New Zealand.[197] Australia is the world's fourth largest exporter of wine, in an industry contributing $5.5 billion per annum to the nation's economy.[198]

Demography

Main articles: Demographics of Australia and Immigration to Australia
Historic population (Estimated) [199]
Year Indigenous population
pre 1788 750,000 to 1,000,000 [47]
Year Non Indigenous population Annual increase %
1788 900  —
1800 5,200 14.6%
1850 405,400 8.7%
Year Total population Annual increase %
1900 3,765,300  —
1910 4,525,100 1.8%
1920 5,411,000 1.8%
1930 6,501,000 1.8%
1940 7,078,000 0.9%
1950 8,307,000 1.6%
1960 10,392,000 2.2%
1970 12,663,000 2.0%
1980 14,726,000 1.5%
1990 17,169,000 1.5%
2000 19,169,100 1.1%
2010 20,971,000 0.9%

For generations, the vast majority of immigrants came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still mainly of British or Irish ethnic origin. In the 2006 Australian census, the most commonly nominated ancestry was Australian (37.13 per cent),[200] followed by English (32 per cent), Irish (9 per cent), Scottish (8 per cent), Italian (4 per cent), German (4 per cent), Chinese (3 per cent), and Greek (2 per cent).[201]

Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I,[202] much of the increase from immigration. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born overseas.[203] Most immigrants are skilled,[204] but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees.[204] By 2050, Australia's population is currently projected to reach around 42 million.[205]

In 2001, 23.1 per cent of Australians were born overseas; the five largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Vietnam, and China.[197][206] Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism.[207] In 2005–06, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania.[208] The migration target for 2010–11 is 168,700, compared to 67,900 in 1998–99.[209]

The Indigenous population—mainland Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders—was counted at 410,003 (2.2 per cent of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from 115,953 in the 1976 census.[210] A large number of Indigenous people are not identified in the Census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status is not recorded on the form; after adjusting for these factors, the ABS estimated the true figure for 2001 to be around 460,140 (2.4 per cent of the total population).[211]

Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment,[212] lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are 11–17 years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians.[197][213][214] Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having "failed state"-like conditions.[215][216][217][218][219]

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian population was 38.8 years.[220] A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002–03)[221] live outside their home country.

Largest populated areas in Australia
(June 2010 Australian Bureau of Statistics estimate)[222]
Rank City Name State Pop. Rank City Name State Pop. view · talk · edit

Sydney
Sydney
Melbourne
Melbourne
1 Sydney NSW 4,575,532 11 Greater Hobart TAS 214,705
2 Melbourne VIC 4,077,036 12 Geelong VIC 178,650
3 Brisbane QLD 2,043,185 13 Townsville QLD 172,316
4 Perth WA 1,696,065 14 Cairns QLD 150,920
5 Adelaide SA 1,203,186 15 Toowoomba QLD 131,258
6 Gold Coast-Tweed QLD / NSW 591,473 16 Darwin NT 127,532
7 Newcastle NSW 546,788 17 Launceston TAS 106,153
8 Canberra-Queanbeyan ACT / NSW 410,419 18 Albury-Wodonga NSW / VIC 106,052
9 Wollongong NSW 292,190 19 Ballarat VIC 96,097
10 Sunshine Coast QLD 251,081 20 Bendigo VIC 91,713

Language

Main article: Australian English
A beach sloping down from a grassy area on the left to the sea on the right, a city can be seen in the horizon
Nearly three quarters of Australians live in metropolitan cities and coastal areas. The beach is an integral part of the Australian identity.[223]
Ariel view of farming fields interspersed with roads, a small forest near the front of the photo
The Barossa Valley is a wine-producing region in South Australia. Fewer than 15 per cent of Australians live in rural areas.

Although Australia has no official language, English is so entrenched that it has become the de facto national language.[2] Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon. Grammar and spelling are similar to that of British English with some notable exceptions.[224] According to the 2006 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for close to 79 per cent of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Italian (1.6 per cent), Greek (1.3 per cent) and Cantonese (1.2 per cent);[225] a considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. A 2010–2011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found that the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic, followed by Vietnamese, Greek, Chinese, and Hindi.[226]

Between 200 and 300 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact, of which only about 70 have survived. Many of these are exclusively spoken by older people; only 18 Indigenous languages are still spoken by all age groups.[227] At the time of the 2006 Census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12 per cent of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home.[228] Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 5,500 deaf people.[229]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Australia

Australia has no state religion. In the 2006 census, 64 per cent of Australians listed themselves as Christian, including 26 per cent as Roman Catholic and 19 per cent as Anglican. About 19 per cent of the population cited "No religion" (which includes humanism, atheism, agnosticism and rationalism), which was the fastest-growing group from 2001 to 2006, and a further 12 per cent did not answer (the question is optional) or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. The largest non-Christian religion in Australia is Buddhism (2.1 per cent), followed by Islam (1.7 per cent), Hinduism (0.8 per cent) and Judaism (0.5 per cent). Overall, fewer than 6 per cent of Australians identify with non-Christian religions.[230] Weekly attendance at church services in 2004 was about 1.5 million: about 7.5 per cent of the population.[231]

An international survey, made by the private, not-for profit German think-tank, the Bertelsmann Foundation, found that "Australia is one of the least religious nations in the western world, coming in 17th out of 21 [countries] surveyed" and that "Nearly three out of four Australians say they are either not at all religious or that religion does not play a central role in their lives.".[232] A survey of 1,718 Australians by the Christian Research Association at the end of 2009 suggested that the numbers of people attending religious services per month in Australia has dropped from 23 per cent in 1993 to 16 per cent in 2009, and while 60 per cent of 15 to 29-year-old respondents in 1993 identified with Christian denominations, 33 per cent did in 2009.[233]

Education

Main article: Education in Australia
Main article: Tertiary education fees in Australia

School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia. All children receive 11 years of compulsory education from the age of 6 to 16 (Year 1 to 10),[234] before they can undertake two more years (Years 11 and 12), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99 per cent. A preparatory year prior to Year 1, although not compulsory, is almost universally undertaken.[234] In the Programme for International Student Assessment, Australia regularly scores among the top five of thirty major developed countries (member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities; all but one is public.[citation needed] OECD places Australia as among the most expensive nations to attend university.[235] There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE Institutes, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.[236] Approximately 58 per cent of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications,[197] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49 per cent is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries.[237]

Health

Life expectancy in Australia in 2006 was 78.7 years for males and 83.5 years for females.[238] Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world,[239] while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease.[240] Australia has one of the highest proportions of overweight citizens among developed nations.[241]

Main article: Health care in Australia

Total expenditure on health (including private sector spending) is around 9.8 per cent of GDP.[242] Australia introduced universal health care in 1975.[243] Known as Medicare it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently set at 1.5 per cent.[244] The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (reducing the costs of medicines) and general practice.[243]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Australia
Ornate white building with an elevated dome in the middle, fronted by a golden fountain and orange flowers
The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne was the first building in Australia to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004[245]

Since 1788, the basis of Australian culture has been strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic Western culture.[246][247] Distinctive cultural features have also arisen from Australia's natural environment and Indigenous cultures.[248][249] Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.[250] Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.[250][251]

Arts

Main article: Visual arts of Australia
Painting of a woman in and orange coat with a broad brimmed yellow hat standing on a cliff above a beach, with the bush visible in the background
Sunlight Sweet by Australian landscape artist Arthur Streeton.

Australian visual arts are thought to have begun with the cave and bark paintings of its Indigenous peoples. The traditions of Indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally, through ceremony and the telling of Dreamtime stories.[252] From the time of European settlement, a theme in Australian art has been the natural landscape,[248] seen for example in the works of Albert Namatjira,[253] Arthur Streeton and others associated with the Heidelberg School,[248] and Arthur Boyd.[254]

The country's landscape remains a source of inspiration for Australian modernist artists; it has been depicted in acclaimed works by the likes of Sidney Nolan,[255] Fred Williams,[256] Sydney Long,[257] and Clifton Pugh.[258] Australian artists influenced by modern American and European art include cubist Grace Crowley,[259] surrealist James Gleeson,[260] and pop artist Martin Sharp.[261] Contemporary Indigenous Australian art is the only art movement of international significance to emerge from Australia[262][263] and "the last great art movement of the 20th century";[264] its exponents have included Emily Kngwarreye.[265][266] Art critic Robert Hughes has written several influential books about Australian history and art, and was described as the "world's most famous art critic" by The New York Times.[267] The National Gallery of Australia and state galleries maintain Australian and overseas collections.[268]

Main articles: Theatre of Australia and Dance in Australia

Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council.[269] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[270] and a national opera company, Opera Australia,[271] well-known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland.[272] At the start of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers.[273] Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[274][275][276]

Aboriginal man performing on the Digeridoo indoors with 4 people watching, aboriginal paintings can be seen on the wall behind him
Performance of Aboriginal song and dance in the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney

Australian literature has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as Banjo Paterson, Henry Lawson, and Dorothea Mackellar captured the experience of the Australian bush.[277] The character of the nation's colonial past, as represented in early literature, is popular with modern Australians.[248] In 1973, Patrick White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature,[278] the first Australian to have achieved this.[279] Australian winners of the Man Booker Prize have included Peter Carey and Thomas Keneally;[280] David Williamson, David Malouf, and J. M. Coetzee, who recently became an Australian citizen, are also renowned writers,[281] and Les Murray is regarded as "one of the leading poets of his generation".[282]

Media

Main articles: Television in Australia, Cinema of Australia, Media of Australia, Australian literature, and Music of Australia

The Australian cinema industry began with the 1906 release of The Story of the Kelly Gang, which is regarded as being the world's first feature-length film;[283] but both Australian feature film production and the distribution of British-made features declined dramatically after World War I as American studios and distributors monopolised the industry,[284] and by the 1930s around 95 per cent of the feature films screened in Australia were produced in Hollywood. By the late 1950s feature film production in Australia had effectively ceased and there were no all-Australian feature films made in the decade between 1959 and 1969.[285]

Thanks to initiatives by the Gorton and Whitlam federal governments, the New Wave of Australian cinema of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, some exploring the nation's colonial past, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock and Breaker Morant,[286] while the so-called "Ocker" genre produced several highly successful urban-based comedy features including The Adventures of Barry McKenzie and Alvin Purple.[287][288][289] Later hits included Mad Max and Gallipoli.[290][291] More recent successes included Shine and Rabbit-Proof Fence.[292][293] Notable Australian actors include Judith Anderson,[294] Errol Flynn,[295] Nicole Kidman, Hugh Jackman, Heath Ledger, Geoffrey Rush, and Cate Blanchett—current joint director of the Sydney Theatre Company.[296][297]

Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,[298] and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,[298] and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.[298] In 2010, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 18th on a list of 178 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (19th) and United States (20th).[299] This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;[300] most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Fairfax Media.[301]

Cuisine

Main article: Australian cuisine

The food of Indigenous Australians was largely influenced by the area in which they lived. Most tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet, hunting native game and fish and collecting native plants and fruit. The general term for native Australian flora and fauna used as a source of food is bush tucker.[302][303] The first settlers introduced British food to the continent[304] which much of what is now considered typical Australian food is based on the Sunday roast has become an enduring tradition for many Australians.[305] Since the beginning of the 20th century, food in Australia has increasingly been influenced by immigrants to the nation, particularly from Southern European and Asian cultures.[304][305] Australian wine is produced in 60 distinct production areas totaling approximately 160,000 hectares, mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country. The wine regions in each of these states produce different wine varieties and styles that take advantage of local climates and soil types. The predominant varieties are Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Sémillon, Pinot noir, Riesling, and Sauvignon blanc.[306][307][308][198][309][310] In 1995, an Australian red wine, Penfolds Grange, won the Wine Spectator award for Wine of the Year, the first time a wine from outside France or California achieved this distinction.[311]

Sport

Main article: Sport in Australia
Black and white photo of a cricket pitch
Cricket has been an important part of Australia's sporting culture since the 19th century.[312]

Around 24 per cent Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities in Australia.[197] Australia has strong international teams in cricket, field hockey, netball, rugby league, and rugby union, having been Olympic or world champions at least twice in each sport in the last 25 years for both men and women where applicable.[313][314][315][316][317][318][319][320] Australia is also powerful in track cycling, rowing, and swimming, having consistently been in the top-five medal-winners at Olympic or World Championship level since 2000.[321][322][323] Swimming is the strongest of these sports; Australia is the second-most prolific medal winner in the sport in Olympic history.[324][325][326]

Some of Australia's most internationally well-known and successful sportspeople are swimmers Dawn Fraser, Murray Rose, Shane Gould, and Ian Thorpe; sprinters Shirley Strickland, Betty Cuthbert, and Cathy Freeman;[327] tennis players Rod Laver, Roy Emerson, Ken Rosewall, Evonne Goolagong, and Margaret Court; cricketers Donald Bradman and Shane Warne; three-time Formula One world champion Jack Brabham; five-time motorcycle grand prix world champion Mick Doohan; golfers Greg Norman and Karrie Webb;[328] cyclist Hubert Opperman; and prodigious billiards player Walter Lindrum.[329] Nationally, other popular sports include Australian rules football, horse racing, squash, surfing, soccer, and motor racing. The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race attract intense interest.

Australia has participated in every summer Olympics of the modern era,[330] and every Commonwealth Games.[331] Australia hosted the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney,[332] and has ranked among the top six medal-takers since 2000.[333] Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982, and 2006 Commonwealth Games.[334] Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament, international cricket matches, and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix. Sydney hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup and the annual Australia–New Zealand Bledisloe Cup is keenly watched. The highest-rating television programs include sports telecasts such as the summer Olympics, FIFA World Cup, Rugby League State of Origin, and the grand finals of the National Rugby League and Australian Football League.[335] Skiing in Australia began in the 1860s and snow sports take place in the Australian Alps and parts of Tasmania.

See also

Australia image Australia portal

Notes

  1. ^ Australia also has a royal anthem, "God Save the Queen (or King)", which is played in the presence of a member of the Royal family when they are in Australia. In all other appropriate contexts, the national anthem of Australia, "Advance Australia Fair", is played.[1]
  2. ^ a b English does not have de jure status.[2]
  3. ^ a b There are minor variations from these three time zones, see Time in Australia.
  4. ^ a b Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between Antarctica and 60 degrees south latitude.[11]
  5. ^ The Oxford English Dictionary records a first occurrence in 1908, in the form Oss. Oz is often taken as an oblique reference to the fictional Land of Oz in the film The Wizard of Oz (1939), based on L. Frank Baum's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900).[18] Australians' "image of Australia as a 'Land of Oz' is not new, and dedication to it runs deep".[19] The spelling Oz is likely to have been influenced by the 1939 film, though the pronunciation was probably always with a /z/, as it is also for Aussie, sometimes spelt Ozzie.[20] The Baz Luhrmann film Australia (2008) makes repeated reference to The Wizard of Oz, which appeared just before the wartime action of Australia. Some critics have even speculated that Baum was inspired by Australia, in naming the Land of Oz: "In Ozma of Oz (1907) Dorothy gets back to Oz as the result of a storm at sea while she and Uncle Henry are traveling by ship to Australia. So, like Australia, Oz is somewhere to the west of California. Like Australia, Oz is an island continent. Like Australia, Oz has inhabited regions bordering on a great desert. One might almost imagine that Baum intended Oz to be Australia, or perhaps a magical land in the center of the great Australian desert."[21]

References

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  2. ^ a b "Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?". 1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm. Retrieved 11 January 2009.  "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."
  3. ^ The Macquarie Dictionary
  4. ^ Collins English Dictionary. Bishopbriggs, Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2009. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-00-786171-2. 
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  39. ^ Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, pp. 464–65, 628–29.
  40. ^ Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 678.
  41. ^ Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 464.
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  • Germaine, Max (1990). Artists & Galleries of Australia. Roseville, Vic.: Craftsman House. ISBN 976-8097-02-7. 
  • Johnson, Vivien (2007). Papunya Painting: Out of the Desert. Canberra: National Museum of Australia. ISBN 978-1-876944-58-2. 
  • Jupp, James (2001). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80789-1. 
  • Macintyre, Stuart (2000). A Concise History of Australia. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62359-6.
  • McCulloch, Alan; Susan McCulloch, Emily McCulloch Childs (2006). The new McCulloch's encyclopedia of Australian art. Fitzroy, VIC: Aus Art Editions in association with The Miegunyah Press. ISBN 0-522-85317-X.
  • Powell JM (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-25619-4.
  • Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ (2000) Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment. London: Arnold; NY: OUP; 0340720336 paper 0-340720328 hard.
  • Smith, Bernard; Smith, Terry (1991). Australian painting 1788–1990. Melbourne, Vic.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-554901-5. 
  • Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003). Cultural history in Australia. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 0-86840-589-2. 

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