Outline of science

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science:

Science – in the broadest sense refers to any system of objective knowledge. In a more restricted sense, science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge humans have gained by such research.

1 Essence of science
2 Branches of science
3 How scientific fields differ
4 Politics of science
5 History of science
6 Philosophy of science
7 Scientific method
8 General scientific concepts
9 Scientific community
- 9.1 Scientific organizations
- 9.2 Scientists
  - 9.2.1 Types of scientist
    - 9.2.1.1 By field
    - 9.2.1.2 By employment status
  - 9.2.2 Famous scientists
10 Science education
11 See also

Essence of science

Main article: Science

Branches of science

Branch of science – also called a "science", is a widely-recognized category of specialized scientific expertise, which typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Each branch of science is usually represented by one or more scientific journals, where research is peer reviewed before being published.

Acoustics – study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases such as vibration and sound.
Agrophysics – - studies physics of the agricultural ecosystem.
- Soil physics –
Astrophysics – - study of the physical aspects of celestial objects.
Atmospheric physics – - study of the atmosphere, specifically modelling the atmosphere of earth and other planets.
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics – - study of how matter and light interact.
Biophysics – - study of physical processes relating to biology.
- Medical physics –
- Neurophysics –
Chemical physics –
Computational physics –
Condensed matter physics –
Cryogenics –
- Cryonics –
Dynamics –
Econophysics –
Electromagnetism –
Geophysics –
Materials physics –
Mathematical physics –
Mechanics –
- Biomechanics –
- Classical mechanics –
- Continuum mechanics –
- Fluid mechanics –
- Quantum mechanics –
- Thermodynamics –
Nuclear physics –
Optics –
Particle physics –
Psychophysics –
Plasma physics –
Polymer physics –
Quantum physics –
Statics –
Solid state physics –
Vehicle dynamics –

Chemistry

Chemistry –

Analytical chemistry –
Astrochemistry –
- Cosmochemistry – analysis of the distribution of elements and their isotopes in the cosmos.
Atmospheric chemistry –
Biochemistry –
- Agrochemistry –
- Bioinorganic chemistry –
- Bioorganic chemistry –
- Biophysical chemistry –
- Environmental chemistry –
- Immunochemistry –
- Medicinal chemistry –
- Pharmacology –
- Natural product chemistry –
- Neurochemistry –
Computational chemistry –
- Chemo-informatics –
- Molecular mechanics –
Flavor chemistry –
Flow chemistry –
Geochemistry – study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets, chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition of rocks, water, and soils, and the cycles of matter and energy that transport the Earth's chemical components in time and space, and their interaction with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere.
- Aqueous geochemistry – study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions.
- Isotope geochemistry – determination of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes in the earth and on earth's surface.
- Ocean chemistry –
- Organic geochemistry – study of the role of processes and compounds that are derived from living or once-living organisms.
- Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – applications to environmental, hydrological and mineral exploration studies.
Hydrogenation chemistry –
Inorganic chemistry –
Nuclear chemistry –
- Radiochemistry –
Organic chemistry –
- Petrochemistry –
Organometallic chemistry –
Photochemistry –
Physical chemistry –
- Chemical kinetics –
- Chemical thermodynamics –
- Femtochemistry –
- Physical organic chemistry –
- Quantum chemistry –
  - Electrochemistry –
  - Sonochemistry –
- Stereochemistry –
- Supramolecular chemistry –
- Thermochemistry –
Phytochemistry –
Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry
- Chemical biology –
- Chemical engineering –
- Chemical oceanography –
- Chemical physics –
- Materials science –
- Mathematical chemistry –
- Mechanochemistry –
- Nanotechnology –
- Oenology –
- Polymer chemistry –
- Solid-state chemistry –
- Spectroscopy –
- Statistical mechanics –
- Surface science –

Astronomy

Astronomy –

Earth sciences

Earth science –

Environmental sciences

Main article: Environmental sciences

Ecology –
- Freshwater biology –
- Marine biology –
- Parasitology –
- Population dynamics –
Environmental chemistry –
Environmental soil science –
Environmental geology –
Toxicology –

Life Sciences (Biology)

Biology –

Aerobiology – study of airborne organic particles
Agriculture – study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications
Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans
- Human anatomy –
Astrobiology – study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy
Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level
Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally
Bioinformatics – use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data
Biomathematics or Mathematical Biology – quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling
Biomechanics — often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics
Biomedical research – study of the human body in health and disease
Biophysics – study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences
Biotechnology — a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology
Building biology – study of the indoor living environment
Botany – study of plants
Cell biology – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell
Conservation Biology – study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife
Chronobiology –
Cryobiology – study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings.
Developmental biology – study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
- Embryology – study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). See also topobiology.
- Gerontology – study of aging processes.
Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment
Environmental Biology – study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity
Epidemiology — a major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations
Evolution –
- Evolutionary Biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time
  - Evolutionary developmental biology –
- Paleobiology –
  - Paleontology – study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
Genetics – study of genes and heredity
- Genomics –
- Proteomics –
- Population genetics – study of changes in gene frequencies in
Histology – study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy
Integrative biology – study of whole organisms
Limnology – study of inland waters
Marine Biology – study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings
Microbiology – study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things
- Bacteriology –
- Virology – study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
Molecular Biology – study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry
- Structural biology — a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
Morphology –
Mycology – study of fungi
Oceanography – study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean
Oncology – study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings
Population biology – study of groups of conspecific organisms, including
- Population ecology – study of how population dynamics and extinction
- Population genetics – study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms
Pathobiology or pathology – study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease
Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism
Pharmacology – study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines
Physiology – study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms
- Immunology –
- Kinesiology –
- Neurobiology – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology
  - Neuroscience –
- Histology –
Phytopathology – study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)
Psychobiology – study of the biological bases of psychology
Sociobiology – study of the biological bases of sociology
Systematics –
- Cladistics –
- Phylogeny –
- Taxonomy –
Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior
- Arachnology –
  - Acarology –
- Entomology – study of insects
  - Myrmecology –
  - Coleopterology –
  - Lepidopterology –
- Ethology – study of animal behavior
- Helminthology –
- Herpetology – study of reptiles and amphibians
- Ichthyology – study of fish
- Malacology –
- Mammalogy – study of mammals
  - Cetology –
  - Physical anthropology –
- Nematology –
- Ornithology – study of birds

Cognitive sciences

Cognitive Science –

Formal sciences

Formal science –

Computer sciences

Computer science –

Theory of computation –
- Automata theory (Formal languages)
- Computability theory –
- Computational complexity theory –
- Concurrency theory –
Algorithms –
- Randomized algorithms –
- Distributed algorithms –
- Parallel algorithms –
Data structures –
Computer architecture –
- VLSI design –
Operating systems –
Computer communications (networks) –
- Information theory –
- Internet, World wide web –
- Wireless computing (Mobile computing)
Computer security and reliability –
- Cryptography –
- Fault-tolerant computing –
Distributed computing –
- Grid computing –
Parallel computing –
- High-performance computing –
Quantum computing –
Computer graphics –
- Image processing –
- Scientific visualization –
- Computational geometry –
Software engineering –
- Formal methods (Formal verification)
Programming languages –
- Programming paradigms –
  - Object-oriented programming –
  - Functional programming –
- Program semantics –
- Type theory –
- Compilers –
- Concurrent programming languages –
Information science –
- Database –
  - Relational database –
  - Distributed database –
  - Object database –
- Multimedia, hypermedia –
- Data mining –
- Information retrieval –
Artificial intelligence –
- Automated reasoning –
- Computer vision –
- Machine learning –
  - Artificial neural network –
- Natural language processing (Computational linguistics)
- Expert systems –
- Robotics –
Human-computer interaction –
Computing in Mathematics, Natural sciences, Engineering and Medicine –
- Numerical analysis –
- Algebraic (symbolic) computation –
- Computational number theory –
- Computational mathematics –
- Scientific computing (Computational science) –
- Computational biology (bioinformatics) –
- Computational physics –
- Computational chemistry –
- Computational neuroscience –
- Computer-aided engineering –
  - Finite element analysis –
  - Computational fluid dynamics –
Computing in Social sciences, Arts and Humanities, Professions –
- Computational economics –
- Computational sociology –
- Computational finance –
- Humanities computing (Digital Humanities) –
Information systems (Business informatics)
- Information technology –
- Management information systems –
- Health informatics –

Mathematics

Mathematics –

Algebra –
- Group theory –
  - Group representation –
- Ring theory –
- Field theory –
- Linear algebra (Vector space)
- Multilinear algebra –
- Lie algebra –
- Associative algebra –
- Non-associative algebra –
- Universal algebra –
- Homological algebra –
- Category theory –
- Lattice theory (Order theory)
- Differential algebra –
Analysis –
- Real analysis –
  - Calculus –
- Complex analysis –
- Functional analysis –
  - Operator theory –
- Non-standard analysis –
- Harmonic analysis –
- p-adic analysis –
- Ordinary differential equations –
- Partial differential equations –
Probability theory –
- Measure theory –
- Ergodic theory –
- Stochastic process –
Geometry and Topology –
- General topology –
- Algebraic topology –
- Geometric topology –
- Differential topology –
- Algebraic geometry –
- Differential geometry –
- Projective geometry –
- Affine geometry –
- Non-Euclidean geometry –
- Convex geometry –
- Discrete geometry –
Trigonometry –
Number theory –
- Analytic number theory –
- Algebraic number theory –
- Geometric number theory –
Logic and Foundations of mathematics –
- Set theory –
- Proof theory –
- Model theory –
- Recursion theory –
- Modal logic –
- Intuitionistic logic –
Applied mathematics –
- Mathematical statistics –
  - Probability –
  - Econometrics –
  - Actuarial science –
  - Demography –
- Approximation theory –
- Numerical analysis –
- Optimization (Mathematical programming) –
  - Operations research –
  - Linear programming –
- Dynamical systems –
  - Chaos theory –
  - Fractal geometry –
- Mathematical physics –
  - Quantum field theory –
  - Statistical mechanics –
- Information theory –
- Cryptography –
- Combinatorics –
  - Coding theory –
- Graph theory –
- Game theory –

See also Branches of Mathematics and AMS Mathematics Subject Classification

Statistics

Statistics –

Computational statistics –
- Data mining –
- Regression –
- Simulation –
  - Bootstrap (statistics) –
Design of experiments –
- Block design and Analysis of variance –
- Response surface methodology –
Engineering statistics –
Spacial statistics –
Social statistics –
Statistical modelling
- Biostatistics –
  - Epidemiology –
- Multivariate analysis –
  - Structural equation model –
  - Time series –
- Reliability theory –
- Quality control –
Statistical theory –
- Decision theory –
- Mathematical statistics –
  - Probability –
Sample Survey –
- Sampling theory –
- Survey methodology –

Systems science

Systems science –

Complex systems –
Complexity theory –
Cybernetics –
- Biocybernetics –
- Engineering cybernetics –
- Management cybernetics –
- Medical cybernetics –
- New Cybernetics –
- Second-order cybernetics –
Control theory –
- Control engineering –
- Control systems –
- Dynamical systems –
Operations research –
Systems dynamics –
- Systems analysis –
Systems theory –
- Developmental systems theory –
- General systems theory –
- Linear time-invariant systems –
- Mathematical system theory –
Interdisciplinary fields involving systems science
- Systems biology –
- Systems ecology –
- Systems engineering –
- Systems neuroscience –
- Systems psychology –

Social sciences

Business studies –
Civics –
Criminology –
Cultural studies –
Demography –
Development studies –
Economics –
Education –
Environmental studies –
Gender and sexuality studies –
Gerontology –
History –
Geography –
- Human geography –
Industrial relations –
Information science –
International studies –
Law –
Legal management –
- Paralegal studies –
Library science –
Management –
Media studies –
Communication studies –
Public administration –
Social work –

Anthropology

Main articles: Anthropology and Outline of anthropology

Economics

Economics –

Macroeconomics –
Microeconomics –
Behavioural economics –
Bioeconomics –
Comparative economics –
- Socialist economics –
Development economics –
Economic geography –
Economic history –
Economic sociology –
Energy economics –
Entrepreneurial Economics –
Environmental economics –
Evolutionary economics –
Financial economics –
Heterodox economics –
- Green economics –
- Feminist economics –
- Islamic economics –
Industrial organization –
International economics –
Institutional economics –
Labor economics –
Law and Economics –
Managerial economics –
Monetary economics –
Neuroeconomics –
Public finance –
Public economics –
Real estate economics –
Resource economics –
Welfare economics –
Political economy –
Socioeconomics –
Transport economics –
Economic methodology –
- Computational economics –
- Econometrics –
  - Mathematical economics –
  - Economic statistics –
    - Time series –
- Experimental economics –

Linguistics

Linguistics –

Anthropological Linguistics –
Applied Linguistics –
Biolinguistics –
Clinical Linguistics and Speech and Language Pathology –
Cognitive Linguistics –
Comparative Linguistics –
Computational Linguistics –
Developmental Linguistics and Language Acquisition –
Dialectology and Dialectometry –
Discourse Analysis –
Etymology –
Evolutionary Linguistics –
Forensic Linguistics –
Geolinguistics –
Historical Linguistics –
Lexis –
Linguistic Typology –
Morphology –
Neurolinguistics –
Philology –
Phonetics –
Phonology –
Phraseology –
Pragmatics –
Psycholinguistics –
Sociolinguistics –
Speech science –
Stylistics –
Syntax –
Semantics –
Writing Systems and Orthography –

Psychology

Applied psychology

Applied psychology –

Psychological testing –
Clinical psychology –
Community psychology –
Consumer behaviour –
Counseling psychology –
Educational psychology –
Forensic psychology –
Health psychology –
Industrial and organizational psychology –
Legal psychology –
Media psychology –
Military psychology –
Occupational health psychology –
Pastoral psychology –
Political psychology –
Psychometrics –
School psychology –
Sport psychology –
Systems psychology –
Traffic psychology –

Geography

Geography –

Cartography –
Human geography –
- Critical geography –
- Cultural geography –
- Feminist geography –
- Economic geography –
- Development geography –
- Historical geography –
- Time geography –
- Political geography & geopolitics –
- Marxist geography –
- Military geography –
- Strategic geography –
- Population geography –
- Social geography –
- Behavioral geography –
- Children's geographies –
- Health geography –
- Tourism geography –
- Urban geography –
Environmental geography –
Physical geography –
- Biogeography –
- Climatology –
- Palaeoclimatology –
- Coastal geography –
- Geomorphology –
- Geodesy –
- Hydrology/Hydrography –
- Glaciology –
- Limnology –
- Oceanography –
- Pedology –
- Landscape ecology –
- Palaeogeography –
Regional geography –

Philosophy

Not considered a science by some thinkers,^[who?] instead considered a precursor of it. Several fields of philosophy are more directly relevant to the natural and social sciences than others. These include:

philosophy –