Christianity in the 19th century

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Main article: Modern history of Christianity

See also: Christianity in the 18th century and Christianity in the 20th century

Characteristic of Christianity in the 19th century were Evangelical revivals in some largely Protestant countries and later the effects of modern scientific theories such as Darwinism on the churches; Modernist theology was one consequence of this. In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church suffered a schism after the first Vatican Council leading to the founding of Old Catholic churches. In Europe there was a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The "secularization of society", attributed to the time of the Enlightenment and its following years, is largely responsible for the spread of secularism.

Modernism in Christian theology

As the more radical implications of the scientific and cultural influences of the Enlightenment began to be felt in the Protestant churches, especially in the 19th century, Liberal Christianity, exemplified especially by numerous theologians in Germany in the 19th century, sought to bring the churches alongside of the broad revolution that Modernism represented. In doing so, new critical approaches to the Bible were developed, new attitudes became evident about the role of religion in society, and a new openness to questioning the nearly universally accepted definitions of Christian orthodoxy began to become obvious.

In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label Fundamentalist following one branch, while Evangelical has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals now live elsewhere in the world.

After the Reformation, protestant groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The Enthusiasts were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the Methodists, the Quakers, and the Baptists. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with modernist ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the Nicene creed and Chalcedonian Creed. These included Unitarians and Universalists. A major issue for Protestants became the degree to which people contribute to their salvation. The debate is often viewed as synergism versus monergism, though the labels Calvinist and Arminian are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the Synod of Dort.

The 19th century saw the rise of Biblical criticism, new knowledge of religious diversity in other continents, and above all the growth of science. This led many Christians to espouse a form of Deism. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of miracles led to what is called "Classic Liberalism". Immensely influential in its day, Classic Liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two world wars and fell prey to the criticisms of postmodernism.

Liberal Christianity

Main article: Liberal Christianity

Liberal Christianity—sometimes called liberal theology—has an affinity with certain current forms of postmodern Christianity. Liberal Christianity is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically informed movements and moods within 19th and 20th century Christianity.

Despite its name, liberal Christianity has always been thoroughly protean. The word liberal in liberal Christianity does not refer to a leftist political agenda but rather to insights developed during the Enlightenment. Generally speaking, Enlightenment-era liberalism held that people are political creatures and that liberty of thought and expression should be their highest value. The development of liberal Christianity owes a lot to the works of philosophers Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Schleiermacher. As a whole, liberal Christianity is a product of a continuing philosophical dialogue.

Many 20th century liberal Christians have been influenced by philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Examples of important liberal Christian thinkers are Rudolf Bultmann and John A.T. Robinson.

Second Great Awakening

Main article: Second Great Awakening

See also: Restorationism (Christian primitivism)

The Second Great Awakening (1790-1840s) was the second great religious revival in United States history and, unlike the First Great Awakening of the 18th century, focused on the unchurched and sought to instil in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings. It also sparked the beginnings of groups such as the Mormons^[1] and the Holiness movement. Leaders included Asahel Nettleton, Edward Payson, James Brainerd Taylor, Charles Grandison Finney, Lyman Beecher, Barton W. Stone, Peter Cartwright, and James Finley.

In New England, the renewed interest in religion inspired a wave of social activism. In western New York, the spirit of revival encouraged the emergence of the Restoration Movement, the Latter Day Saint movement, Adventism, and the Holiness movement. Especially in the west—at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, and in Tennessee—the revival strengthened the Methodists and the Baptists and introduced into America a new form of religious expression—the Scottish camp meeting.

The Second Great Awakening made its way across the frontier territories, fed by intense longing for a prominent place for God in the life of the new nation, a new liberal attitude toward fresh interpretations of the Bible, and a contagious experience of zeal for authentic spirituality. As these revivals spread, they gathered converts to Protestant sects of the time. However, the revivals eventually moved freely across denominational lines, with practically identical results, and went farther than ever toward breaking down the allegiances which kept adherents to these denominations loyal to their own. Consequently, the revivals were accompanied by a growing dissatisfaction with Evangelical churches and especially with the doctrine of Calvinism, which was nominally accepted or at least tolerated in most Evangelical churches at the time. Various unaffiliated movements arose that were often restorationist in outlook, considering contemporary Christianity of the time to be a deviation from the true, original Christianity. These groups attempted to transcend Protestant denominationalism and orthodox Christian creeds to restore Christianity to its original form.

Restoration Movement

Main article: Restoration Movement

The Restoration Movement (also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone-Campbell Movement) is a Christian movement that began on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. The movement sought to restore the church and "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."^[2]:54

The Restoration Movement developed from several independent efforts to return to apostolic Christianity, but two groups, which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, were particularly important to the development of the movement.^[3]:27-32 The first, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, and called themselves simply Christians. The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell; they used the name Disciples of Christ. Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided. In 1832 they joined in fellowship with a handshake.

Among other things, they were united in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and that baptism of adult believers by immersion in water is a necessary condition for salvation. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus.^[4]:27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st century churches as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.^[5]:8

The Restoration Movement has since divided into multiple separate groups. There are three main branches in the United States: the Churches of Christ, the Christian churches and churches of Christ, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.^[5]:383 A number of groups outside the U.S. also have historical associations with this movement. In Canada, this includes the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in Canada, the Churches of Christ, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada,^[6] and Christian churches and churches of Christ. In Australia, among Churches of Christ in Australia there are congregations that identify with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and those who identify with the Christian churches and churches of Christ.

Adventism

Main article: Adventism

Adventism is a Christian eschatological belief that looks for the imminent Second Coming of Jesus to inaugurate the Kingdom of God. This view involves the belief that Jesus will return to receive those who have died in Christ and those who are awaiting his return, and that they must be ready when he returns.

The Millerites, the most well-known family of the Adventist movements, were the followers of the teachings of William Miller, who, in 1833, first shared publicly his belief in the coming Second Advent of Jesus Christ in roughly the year 1843. They emphasized apocalyptic teachings anticipating the end of the world, and did not look for the unity of Christendom but busied themselves in preparation for Christ's return. Millerites sought to restore a prophetic immediacy and uncompromising biblicism that they believed had once existed but had long been rejected by mainstream Protestant and Catholic churches. From the Millerites descended the Seventh-day Adventists and the Advent Christian Church. The Millerites were part of the wave of revivalism in the United States known as the Second Great Awakening.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several Adventist groups which arose from the Millerite movement of the 1840s. Miller predicted on the basis of Daniel 8:14-16 and the day-year principle that Jesus Christ would return to Earth on October 22, 1844. When this did not happen, most of his followers disbanded and returned to their original churches.

A small number of Millerites came to believe that Miller's calculations were correct, but that his interpretation of Daniel 8:14 was flawed. Beginning with a vision reported by Hiram Edson on October 23, these Adventists (as this group of Millerite believers came to be known) arrived at the conviction that Daniel 8:14 foretold Christ's entrance into the "Most Holy Place" of the heavenly sanctuary rather than his second coming. Over the next decade this understanding developed into the doctrine of the investigative judgment: an eschatological process commencing in 1844 in which Christians will be judged to verify their eligibility for salvation and God's justice will be confirmed before the universe. The Adventists continued to believe that Christ's second coming would be imminent, although they refrained from setting further dates for the event.

Holiness movement

Main article: Holiness movement

The Methodists of the 19th century continued the interest in Christian holiness that had been started by their founder, John Wesley, and in 1836, two Methodist women, Sarah Worrall Lankford and Phoebe Palmer, started the Tuesday Meeting for the Promotion of Holiness in New York City. A year later, Methodist minister Timothy Merritt founded a journal called the Guide to Christian Perfection to promote the Wesleyan message of Christian holiness.

In 1837, Phoebe Palmer experienced what she called entire sanctification. She began leading the Tuesday Meeting for the Promotion of Holiness. At first only women attended these meetings, but eventually Methodist bishops and other clergy members began to attend them also. In 1859, she published The Promise of the Father, in which she argued in favor of women in ministry, later to influence Catherine Booth, co-founder of the Salvation Army. The practice of ministry by women is common but not universal within the denominations of the holiness movement.

At the Tuesday Meetings, Methodists soon enjoyed fellowship with Christians of different denominations, including the Congregationalist Thomas Upham. Upham was the first man to attend the meetings, and his participation in them led him to study mystical experiences, looking to find precursors of holiness teaching in the writings of persons like German Pietist Johann Arndt and the Roman Catholic mystic Madame Guyon. Other non-Methodists also contributed to the holiness movement. Asa Mahan, the president of Oberlin College, and Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelist, promoted the idea of Christian holiness. In 1836, Mahan experienced what he called a baptism with the Holy Spirit. Mahan believed that this experience had cleansed him from the desire and inclination to sin.

The first distinct "holiness" camp meeting convened in Vineland, New Jersey, in 1867 and attracted as many as 10,000 people. Ministers formed the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness, and agreed to conduct a similar gathering the next year. Later, this association became the Christian Holiness Partnership. The third National Camp Meeting met at Round Lake, New York. This time the national press attended and write-ups appeared in numerous papers. Robert and Hannah Smith were among those who took the holiness message to England, and their ministries helped lay the foundation for the now-famous Keswick Convention.

In the 1870s, the holiness movement spread to Great Britain, where it was sometimes called the Higher Life movement after the title of William Boardman’s book, The Higher Life. Higher Life conferences were held at Broadlands and Oxford in 1874 and in Brighton and Keswick in 1875. The Keswick Convention soon became the British headquarters for the movement. The Faith Mission in Scotland was one consequence of the British holiness movement. Another was a flow of influence from Britain back to the United States. In 1874, Albert Benjamin Simpson read Boardman’s Higher Christian Life and felt the need for such a life himself. He went on to found the Christian and Missionary Alliance.

Latter Day Saints

Main article: Latter Day Saint movement

See also: History of the Latter Day Saint movement and List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement

The Latter Day Saint movement is a group of restorationist religious denominations and adherents who follow at least some of the teachings and revelations of Joseph Smith, Jr., publisher of the Book of Mormon in 1830. Throughout his life Joseph Smith shared and later wrote of an experience he had as a boy having seen God the Father and Jesus Christ, as two separate beings, who told him that the true church had been lost and would be restored through him, and he would be given the authority to organize and lead the true Church of Christ. Smith and Oliver Cowdery also said that the angels John the Baptist, Peter, James, and John had visited them in 1829 and given them authority to reestablish the Church of Christ.

The first Latter Day Saint church was formed in April 1830, consisting of a community of believers in the western New York towns of Fayette, Manchester, and Colesville. They called themselves the Church of Christ. On April 6, 1830, this church formally organized into a legal institution under the name Church of Christ. By 1834, the church was being referred to as the Church of the Latter Day Saints in early church publications,^[7] and in 1838 Joseph Smith announced that he had received a revelation from God that officially changed the name to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.^[8][9]

In 1844, William Law and several other Latter Day Saints in church leadership positions publicly denounced Joseph Smith's secret practice of polygamy in the controversial Nauvoo Expositor, and formed their own church. Following Smith's death by a mob in Carthage, Illinois, some prominent members of the church claimed to be Smith's legitimate successor resulting in a succession crisis, in which the majority of church members followed Brigham Young's leadership; others followed Sidney Rigdon. The crisis resulted in several permanent schisms as well as the formation of occasional splinter groups, some of which no longer exist. The largest group, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), migrated to Utah Territory. Other groups originating within the Latter Day Saint movement followed different paths in Missouri, Illinois, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. The largest of these other groups, the Community of Christ (originally known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), was formed in Illinois in 1860 by several groups uniting around Smith's son, Joseph Smith III.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has 14 million members.^[10]

Bible Student movement and the Jehovah's Witnesses

Main articles: Bible Student movement and Jehovah's Witnesses

The Bible Student movement emerged from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell, also known as Pastor Russell. Members of the movement generally referred to themselves as Bible Students or Independent Bible Students. A number of schisms developed within the congregations of Bible Students associated with the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania between 1909 and 1932.^[11][12] The most significant split began in January 1917 after the election of Joseph Franklin Rutherford as the president of the Society about two months after Russell's death, and Rutherford's subsequent replacement of four directors of the Watch Tower Society.^[13] Thousands also left in the years following 1925, prompted in part by failed predictions for 1925 and disillusionment with Rutherford's doctrinal changes and his campaign for centralized control of the Bible Student movement.^[11] William Schnell, author and former Witness, has claimed that three-quarters of the Bible Students who had been associating in 1921 had left by 1931;^[14] in 1934, Rutherford himself wrote that "of the great multitude that left the world to follow Jesus Christ only a few are now in God's organization".^[15]

The "Jehovah's Witnesses" emerged from the Bible Student movement.^[16] Following a schism in the movement, the branch that maintained control of the Society underwent significant organizational changes, bringing its authority structure and methods of evangelism under centralized control.^[17][18] The name Jehovah's witnesses was adopted in 1931. Several factions formed their own independent religious fellowships, such as the Dawn Bible Students Association (which continues to print and advertise the first six volumes of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series and others of his writings), the Standfast Movement, the Paul Johnson Movement (later called the Laymen's Home Missionary Movement), the Elijah Voice Movement, the Eagle Society, and the Pastoral Bible Institute of Brooklyn. These groups range from those who are more conservative, claiming to be Russell's true followers, to those who are more liberal and claim that Russell's role is not as important as once believed.^[19] Rutherford's faction of the movement retained control of the Watch Tower Society^[19] and adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931.

The current total membership amongst the various Bible Students fellowships is unknown; worldwide membership among Jehovah's Witnesses exceeds 7 million.^[20]

Third Great Awakening: Resurgence

Main article: Third Great Awakening

The Third Great Awakening was a period of religious activism in American history from the late 1850s to the 20th century. It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong sense of social activism. It gathered strength from the postmillennial theology that the Second Coming of Christ would come after humankind had reformed the entire earth. The Social Gospel Movement gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness and Nazarene movements, and Christian Science.^[21] Significant names include Dwight L. Moody, Ira D. Sankey, William Booth and Catherine Booth (founders of the Salvation Army), Charles Spurgeon, and James Caughey. Hudson Taylor began the China Inland Mission and Thomas John Barnardo founded his famous orphanages. The Keswick Convention movement began out of the British Holiness movement, encouraging a lifestyle of holiness, unity, and prayer.

Mary Baker Eddy introduced Christian Science, which gained a national following. In 1880, the Salvation Army denomination arrived in America. Although its theology was based on ideals expressed during the Second Great Awakening, its focus on poverty was of the Third. The Society for Ethical Culture, established in New York in 1876 by Felix Adler, attracted a Reform Jewish clientele. Charles Taze Russell founded a Bible Student Institute now known as the Jehovah's Witnesses.

With Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago as its center, the settlement house movement and the vocation of social work were deeply influenced by the Tolstoyan reworking of Christian idealism.^[22] The final group to emerge from this awakening in North America was Pentecostalism, which had its roots in the Methodist, Wesleyan, and Holiness movements, and began in 1906 on Azusa Street, in Los Angeles. Pentecostalism would later lead to the Charismatic movement.

Oxford Movement in the Anglican communion

Shortly after the Oxford Movement began to advocate restoring Catholic faith and practice to the Church of England (see Anglo-Catholicism), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. Anglican priest John Henry Newman established a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford in the 1840s. From then forward, there have been many communities of monks, friars, sisters, and nuns established within the Anglican Communion. In 1848, Mother Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the Reformation. In October 1850, the first building specifically built for the purpose of housing an Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymere in Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, printing press, and a soup kitchen. From the 1840s and throughout the following hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of Africa, Asia, Canada, India, and the Pacific.

Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life", a combination of a life of contemplative prayer with active service. Anglican religious life closely mirrors that of Roman Catholicism. Like Roman Catholics, Anglicans also take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Religious communities live together under a common rule, reciting the Divine Office and celebrating the Eucharist daily.

Roman Catholicism

On February 7, 1862, Pope Pius IX issued the papal constitution entitled Ad Universalis Ecclesiae, dealing with the conditions for admission to religious orders of men in which solemn vows are prescribed.

First Vatican Council

The doctrine of papal primacy was further developed in 1870 at the First Vatican Council, which declared that "in the disposition of God the Roman church holds the preeminence of ordinary power over all the other churches". This council also affirmed the dogma of papal infallibility, (declaring that the infallibility of the Christian community extends to the pope himself, when he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church), and of papal supremacy (supreme, full, immediate, and universal ordinary jurisdiction of the Pope).

The most substantial body of defined doctrine on the subject is found in Pastor Aeternus, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ of Vatican Council I. This document declares that “in the disposition of God the Roman church holds the preeminence of ordinary power over all the other churches.” This council also affirmed the dogma of papal infallibility, deciding that the “infallibility” of the Christian community extended to the pope himself, at least when speaking on matters of faith.

Vatican I defined a twofold Primacy of Peter, one in papal teaching on faith and morals (the charism of infallibility), and the other a primacy of jurisdiction involving government and discipline of the Church, submission to both being necessary to Catholic faith and salvation.^[23]

Vatican I rejected the ideas that papal decrees have "no force or value unless confirmed by an order of the secular power" and that the Pope’s decisions can be appealed to an ecumenical council "as to an authority higher than the Roman Pontiff."

Paul Collins argues that "(the doctrine of papal primacy as formulated by the First Vatican Council) has led to the exercise of untrammelled papal power and has become a major stumbling block in ecumenical relationships with the Orthodox (who consider the definition to be heresy) and Protestants."^[24]

Forced to break off prematurely by secular political developments in 1870, Vatican I left behind it a somewhat unbalanced ecclesiology. "In theology the question of papal primacy was so much in the foreground that the Church appeared essentially as a centrally directed institution which one was dogged in defending but which only encountered one externally."^[25]

Before the council, in 1854, Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic Bishops, whom he had consulted between 1851 and 1853, proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.^[26] Eight years earlier, in 1846, the Pope had granted the unanimous wish of the bishops from the United States, and declared the Immaculata the patron of the US.^[27]

During the First Vatican Council, some 108 council fathers requested to add the words “Immaculate Virgin” to the Hail Mary.^[28] Some fathers requested the dogma of the Immaculate Conception to be included in the Creed of the Church, which was opposed by Pius IX.^[29] Many French Catholics wished the dogmatization of Papal infallibility and the assumption of Mary by the ecumenical council.^[30] During Vatican One, nine mariological petitions favoured a possible assumption dogma, which however was strongly opposed by some council fathers, especially from Germany. In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.^[31][32] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a very small breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.^[33]

Social teachings

The Church was slow to react to the growing industrialization and impoverishment of workers, trying first to immediate the situation with increased charity Franzen 350 In 1891 Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum Novarum in which the Church defined the dignity and rights of industrial workers.

The Industrial Revolution brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. Influenced by the German Bishop Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler, in 1891, Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum, which set in context Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. Rerum Novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.^[34]

Veneration of Mary

Madonna and Child, by Filippo Lippi

Popes have always highlighted the inner link between the Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the full acceptance of Jesus Christ as Son of God.^[35][36] Since the 19th century, they were highly important for the development of mariology to explain the veneration of Mary through their decisions not only in the area of Marian beliefs (Mariology) but also Marian practices and devotions. Before the 19th century, Popes promulgated Marian veneration by authorizing new Marian feast days, prayers, initiatives, and the acceptance and support of Marian congregations.^[37][38] Since the 19th century, Popes began to use encyclicals more frequently. Thus Leo XIII, the Rosary Pope, issued eleven Marian encyclicals. Recent Popes promulgated the veneration of the Blessed Virgin with two dogmas: Pius IX with the Immaculate Conception in 1854, and the Assumption of Mary in 1950 by Pope Pius XII. Pius XII also promulgated the new feast Queenship of Mary celebrating Mary as Queen of Heaven, and he introduced the first ever Marian year in 1954; a second one was proclaimed by John Paul II. Pius IX, Pius XI, and Pius XII facilitated the veneration of Marian apparitions such as in Lourdes and Fátima. Later Popes such from John XXIII to Benedict XVI promoted the visit to Marian shrines (Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2008). The Second Vatican Council highlighted the importance of Marian veneration in Lumen Gentium. During the Council, Paul VI proclaimed Mary to be the Mother of the Church.

Anti-clericalism and atheistic communism

In many revolutionary movements the church was associated with the established repressive regimes. Thus, for example, after the French Revolution and the Mexican Revolution there was a distinct anti-clerical tone in those countries that exists to this day. Communism in particular was in many cases openly hostile to religion; Karl Marx condemned religion as the "opium of the people" as he considered it a false sense of hope in an afterlife withholding the people from facing their worldly situation. Based on a similar quote ("opium for the people"), Lenin believed religion was being used by ruling classes as a tool of suppression of the people. The Marxist-Leninist governments of the 20th century were generally atheistic. All of them restricted the exercise of religion to a greater or lesser degree, but only Albania actually banned religion and officially declared itself to be an atheistic state.

In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.^[39] The confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms generally accompanied secularist, and later, Marxist-leaning, governmental reforms.^[40] One such regime emerged in Mexico in 1860. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious orders and the clergy. More severe laws called Calles Law during the rule of atheist Plutarco Elías Calles eventually led to the "worst guerilla war in Latin American History", the Cristero War.^[41]

Jesuits

Church from the Indian settlement of San Ignacio Miní

Only in the 19th century, after the breakdown of most Spanish and Portuguese colonies, was the Vatican able to take charge of Catholic missionary activities through its Propaganda Fide organization.^[42]

During this period, the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.^[43]

Africa

By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior.^[44] The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate, and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries.^[44] Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, monasteries, and churches.^[44]

Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire

Churches of the Moscow Kremlin, as seen from the Balchug

The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in the motto, Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism, of the late Russian Empire. At the same time, it was placed under the control of the Tsar by the Church reform of Peter I in the 18th century. Its governing body was the Most Holy Synod, which was run by an official (titled Ober-Procurator) appointed by the Tsar himself.

The church was involved in the various campaigns of russification,^[45] and accused of involvement in anti-Jewish pogroms.^[46] In the case of anti-Semitism and the anti-Jewish pogroms, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the church, and many Russian Orthodox clerics, including senior hierarchs, openly defended persecuted Jews, at least from the second half of the 19th century.^[47] Also, the Church has no official position on Judaism as such.^[47][48]

The Church, like the Tsarist state, was seen as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.

19th century Timeline

• 1801 Cane Ridge, Kentucky
• 1801 - John Theodosius Van Der Kemp moves to Graaff Reinet to minister to the Khoikhoi (Hottentots) people. Earlier he had helped found the Netherlands Missionary Society. In 1798, he had gone to South Africa to work as a missionary among the Xhosa.
• 1802 - Henry Martyn hears Charles Simeon speak of William Carey's work in India and resolves to become a missionary himself. He will sail for India in 1805 ^[49]
• 1803 - The Massachusetts Baptist Missionary Society votes to publish a missionary magazine. Now known as The American Baptist, the periodical is the oldest religious magazine in the U.S.
• 1804 - British and Foreign Bible Society formed ^[50]; Church Missionary Society enters Sierra Leone ^[51]
• 1805 - The first Christian missionaries arrive in Namibia, brothers Abraham and Christian Albrecht from the London Missionary Society ^[52]
• 1806 - Haystack prayer meeting at Williams College; Andover Theological Seminary founded as a missionary training center; Protestant missionary work begins in earnest across southern Africa
• 1807 - First Protestant missionary to China, Robert Morrison, begins work in Guangzhou (formerly called Canton) ^[53]
• 1809 - London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews (now known as the Church's Ministry Among Jewish People) founded ^[54]
• 1809 - National Bible Society of Scotland organized ^[50]
• 1810 - The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions is formed ^[55]
• 1811 - English Wesleyans enter Sierra Leone ^[56]
• 1811 The Campbells begin Restoration Movement
• 1812 - First American foreign missionary, Adoniram Judson, arrives in Serampore and soon goes to Burma ^[57]
• 1813 - The Methodists form the Wesleyan Missionary Society.
• 1814 - First recorded baptism of a Chinese convert, Cai Gao; American Baptist Foreign Mission Society formed ^[58]; Netherlands Bible Society founded ^[50]; first missionaries arrive in New Zealand led by Samuel Marsden ^[59]
• 1815 - American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions open work on Ceylon, modern-day Sri Lanka through American Ceylon Mission ^[60]; Basel Missionary Society organized; Richmond African Missionary Society founded
• 1815 Peter the Aleut, orthodox Christian tortured and martyred in Catholic San Francisco, California
• 1816 - Robert Moffat arrives in Africa ^[61]; American Bible Society founded ^[62]
• 1816 Bishop Richard Allen, a former slave, founds the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first African-American denomination
• 1817 - James Thompson, agent for British and Foreign Bible Society, begins distributing Bibles throughout Latin America ^[63]
• 1817 Claus Harms publishes 95 theses against rationalism and Prussian Union
• 1818 - Missionary work begins in Madagascar with the reluctant approval of the king ^[64]
• 1819 - John Scudder, missionary physician, joins the American Ceylon Mission ^[65]; Wesleyan Methodists start work in Madras, India ^[66]; Reginald Heber writes words to missionary classic "From Greenland's Icy Mountains" ^[67]
• 1819 Thomas Jefferson produced the Jefferson Bible
• 1820 - Hiram Bingham goes to Hawaii (Sandwich Islands) ^[68]
• 1821 - African-American Lott Carey, a Baptist missionary, sails with 28 colleagues from Norfolk, VA to Sierra Leone ^[69]; Protestant Episcopal Church mission board established ^[70]
• 1822 - African American Betsy Stockton is sent by the American Board of Missions to Hawaii. She thus becomes the first single woman missionary in the history of modern missions.^[71]
• 1823 - Scottish Missionary Society workers arrive in Bombay, India ^[72]; Liang Fa, first Chinese Protestant evangelist, is ordained by Robert Morrison; Colonial and Continental Church Society formed ^[73]
• 1824 - Berlin Mission Society formed ^[74]
• 1824 English translation of Wilhelm Gesenius' ...Handwörterbuch...: Hebrew-English Lexicon, Hendrickson Publishers
• 1825 - George Boardman goes to Burma ^[75]
• 1826 - American Bible Society sends first shipment of Bibles to Mexico
• 1827 - Missionary Lancelot Edward Threlkeld reports in The Monitor that he was "advancing rapidly" in his efforts to disseminate Holy Scripture among Indigenous Australians of the Hunter and Shoalhaven Rivers. [1]
• 1827 Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg takes on the editorship of the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, the chief literary organ of the Neo-Lutheranism
• 1827 Samuel Gobat begins his first stay in Ethiopia, residing at the capital city of Gondar. He is one of the first modern missionaries to that country.
• 1828 - Basel Mission begins work in the Christiansborg area of Accra, Ghana ^[76]; Karl Gützlaff of the Netherlands Missionary Society lands in Bangkok, Thailand ^[77]; Rhenish Missionary Association formed ^[74]
• 1828 Plymouth Brethren founded, Dispensationalism
• 1829 - George Müller, a native of Prussia, goes to England as a missionary to the Jews; Anthony Norris Groves, an Exeter dentist, sets off as a missionary to Baghdad accompanied by John Kitto
• 1830 - Church of Scotland missionary Alexander Duff arrives in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) ^[78]; William Swan, missionary to Siberia, writes Letters on Missions, the first Protestant comprehensive treatment of the theory and practice of missions ^[79]; Baptism of Taufa'ahau Tupou, King of Tonga, by a western missionary
• 1830 Catherine Laboure receives Miraculous Medal from the Blessed Mother in Paris, France.
• 1830 Charles Finney's revivals lead to Second Great Awakening in America
• 1830, April 6 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism) founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. as a result of reported visitations and commandment by God the Father, Jesus Christ, and later the Angel Moroni. Book of Mormon also published in 1830.
• 1831 - American Congregational missionaries arrive in Thailand, withdrawing in 1849 without a single convert ^[80]; four Native Americans from beyond the Rocky Mountains come east to St. Louis, Missouri seeking information on the "palefaces' religion" ^[81]
• 1832 - Teava, former cannibal and pioneer Pacific Islander missionary, is commissioned by John Williams to work on the Samoan island of Manono
• 1832 Church of Christ (Disciples) organized, made up of Presbyterians in distress over Protestant factionalism and decline of fervor
• 1832 persecution of Old Lutherans: by a royal decree of 28 Feb. all Lutheran worship is declared illegal in Prussia in favour of Prussian Union [2].
• 1833 - Baptist work in Thailand begins with John Taylor Jones ^[82]; the first American Methodist missionary, Melville Cox, goes to Liberia where he dies within four months. His dying appeal was: "Let a thousand fall before Africa be given up" ^[83]; Free Will Baptist Foreign Missionary Society begins work in India
• 1833 John Keble's sermon "National Apostasy" initiates the Oxford Movement in England
• 1834 - American Presbyterian Mission opens work in India in the Punjab ^[84]; Peter Parker MD, associated with the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, first American Medical Missionary to China opens Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton ^[85]
• 1835 - Rhenish Missionary Society begins work among the Dayaks on Borneo (Indonesia) ^[86]; Daniel Wilson, Bishop of Calcutta calls India's caste system "a cancer."
• 1836 - Plymouth Brethren begin work in Madras, India ^[87]; George Müller begins his work with orphans in Bristol, England;Gossner Mission formed ^[74]; Leipzig Mission Society established ^[74]; Colonial Missionary Society formed; The Providence Missionary Baptist District Association is formed, one of at least six national organizations among African American Baptists whose sole objective was missionary work in Africa.
• 1837 - Evangelical Lutheran Church mission board established ^[88]; First translation of Bible into Japanese (actual translation work done in Singapore)
• 1838 - Church of Scotland Mission of Inquiry to the Jews; four Scottish ministers including Robert Murray M'Cheyne and Andrew Bonar journey to Palestine; Augustinians enter Australia.
• 1838-1839 Saxon Lutherans objecting to theological rationalism emigrate from Germany to the United States; settle in Perry County, Missouri. Leads to formation of the LC-MS
• 1839 - Entire Bible is published in language of Tahiti; three French missionaries martyred in Korea; English Protestant missionaries, including John Williams, murdered on Erromango (Vanuatu, South Pacific) ^[89]
• 1840 - David Livingstone is in present-day Malawi (Africa) with the London Missionary Society; American Presbyterians enter Thailand and labor for 18 years before seeing their first Thai convert ^[80]; Irish Presbyterian Missionary Society formed; Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Missionary Society founded
• 1841 - Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society formed ^[52]; Welsh Methodists begin working among the Khasi people of India
• 1842 - Church Missionary Society enters Badagry, Lagos
• 1842 - Gossner Mission Society receives royal sanction [3]; Norwegian Missionary Society formed in Stavanger^[90]
• 1842 - Methodist Missionary, Thomas Birch Freeman arrives in Badagry, Nigeria [4];^[91]
• 1843 - Baptist John Taylor Jones translates New Testament into the Thai language [5]; British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews formed
• 1843, Disruption of: schism within the established Church of Scotland
• 1844 - German Ludwig Krapf begins work in Mombasa on the Kenya Coast ^[92]; first Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) formed by George Williams; George Smith and Thomas McClatchie sail for China as the first two CMS missionaries to that country
• 1844 Lars Levi Laestadius experiences awakening: beginning of laestadianism
• 1844, October 22 Great Disappointment, false prediction of Second Coming of Christ by Millerites
• 1845 - Southern Baptist Convention mission organization founded ^[52]
• 1845 Southern Baptist Convention formed in Augusta, Georgia
• 1846 - The London Missionary Society establishes work on Niue, a South Pacific island which westerners had named the "savage island"^[52]
• 1846 Bernadette Soubirous received the first of 18 apparitions of Our Lady of Lourdes in Lourdes, France.
• 1847 - Presbyterian William Burns goes to China, translates The Pilgrim's Progress into Chinese; Moses White sails to China as a Methodist medical missionary
• 1848 - Charles Forman goes to Punjab [6]; German missionaries Johannes Rebmann and Johann Ludwig Krapf arrive at Kilimanjaro. Initially, their story of a snow-covered peak near the equator was scoffed at. [7]
• 1848 Epistle to the Easterns and Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs response
• 1848 Perfectionist movement in western New York state
• 1849 - Just weeks after arriving on the Melanesian island of Anatom, missionary John Geddie wrote in his journal: "In the darkness, degradation, pollution and misery that surrounds me, I will look forward in the vision of faith to the time when some of these poor islanders will unite in the triumphant song of ransomed souls, 'Unto Him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in His own blood.'" [8]
• 1850 - On the occasion of Karl Gützlaff's visit to Europe, the Berlin Ladies Association for China is established in conjunction with the Berlin Missionary Association for China. Work in China will commence in 1851 with the arrival of Hermandine Neumann in Hong Kong. Rev. Thomas Valpy French, came to India in 1850, founded St. John's College, Agra, and became first Bishop of Lahore in 1877.
• 1851 - Allen Gardiner and six missionary colleagues die of exposure and starvation at Patagonia on the southern tip of South America because a re-supply ship from England arrives six months late.^[93]
• 1852 - Zenana (women) and Medical Missionary Fellowship formed in England to send out single women missionaries ^[94]
• 1853- The Hermannsburg Missionary Society, founded in 1849 by Louis Harms, has finished training its first group of young missionaries. They are sent to Africa on a ship (the Kandaze) which had been built entirely from donations. [9]
• 1854 - New York Missionary Conference, guided by Alexander Duff, ponders the question: "To what extent are we authorized by the Word of God to expect the conversion of the world to Christ?" ^[95]; Henry Venn, secretary of the Church Missionary Society, sets out ideal of self-governing, self-supporting and self-propagating churches; Hudson Taylor arrives in China^[96]
• 1854 Immaculate Conception, defined as Catholic dogma
• 1854 Missionary Hudson Taylor arrives in China
• 1855 - Henry Steinhauer is ordained as a Canadian Methodist missionary to North American Indians and posted to Lac La Biche, Alberta. Steinhauer's missionary work had actually begun 15 years earlier in 1840 when he was assigned to Lac La Pluie to assist in translating, teaching and interpreting the Ojibwa and Cree languages.
• 1855 Søren Kierkegaard, founder of Christian existentialism
• 1856 - Presbyterians start work in Colombia with the arrival of Henry Pratt ^[97]
• 1857 - Bible translated into Tswana language; Board of Foreign Missions of Dutch Reformed Church set up; four missionary couples killed at the Fatehgarh mission during the Indian Mutiny of 1857; Publication of David Livingstone's book Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa
• 1858 - John G. Paton begins work in New Hebrides ^[98]; Basel Evangelical Missionary Society begins work in western Sumatra (Indonesia)
• 1859 - Protestant missionaries arrive in Japan^[99]; Revivals in North America and the British Isles generate interest in overseas missions; Albert Benjamin Simpson (founder of Christian and Missionary Alliance) is converted by the revival ministry of Henry Grattan Guinness
• 1861 - Protestant Stundism arises in the village of Osnova of modern-day Ukraine; Sarah Doremus founds the Women's Union Missionary Society; Episcopal Church opens work in Haiti ^[100]; Rhenish Mission goes to Indonesia under Ludwig Nommensen
• 1862 - Paris Evangelical Missionary Society opens work in Senegal [10]
• 1863 - Robert Moffat, missionary to Africa with the London Missionary Society, publishes his book Rivers of Water in a Dry Place, Being an Account of the Introduction of Christianity into South Africa, and of Mr. Moffat's Missionary Labours
• 1863 Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed twenty 20 years after the Great Disappointment
• 1865 - The China Inland Mission is founded by James Hudson Taylor ^[101]; James Laidlaw Maxwell plants first viable church in Taiwan. Salvation Army founded in London by William Booth
• 1865 Methodist preacher William Booth founds the Salvation Army, vowing to bring the gospel into the streets to the most desperate and needy
• 1866 - Charles Haddon Spurgeon invents The Wordless Book, which is widely used in cross-cultural evangelism ^[102]; Theodore Jonas Meyer (1819-1894), a converted Jew serving as a Presbyterian missionary in Italy, nurses those dying in a cholera epidemic until he himself falls prey to the disease. Barely surviving, he becomes a peacemaker between Catholics and Protestants; Robert Thomas, the first Protestant martyr in Korea, is beheaded giving a Bible to his executioner.^[103]
• 1867 - Methodists start work in Argentina ^[104]; Scripture Union established; Lars Olsen Skrefsrud and Hans Peter Børresen begin working among the Santals of India.
• 1868 - Robert Bruce goes to Iran, Canadian Baptist missionary Americus Timpany begins work among the Telugu people in India.
• 1869 - The first Methodist women's missionary magazine, The Heathen Women's Friend, begins publication. ; Riot in Yangzhou, China destroys China Inland Mission house and nearly leads to open war between Britain and China.
• 1869-1870 Catholic First Vatican Council, asserted doctrine of Papal Infallibility, rejected by Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland
• 1870 - Clara Swain, the very first female missionary medical doctor, arrives at Bareilly, India; Orthodox Missionary Society founded ^[105]
• 1870 Italy declared war on the Papal States. The Italian Army enters Rome. Papal States ceased to exist.
• 1871 - Henry Stanley finds David Livingstone in central Africa ^[106]
• 1871 Pontmain, France was saved from advancing German troops with the appearing of Our Lady of Hope
• 1871-1878 German Kulturkampf against Roman Catholicism
• 1872 - First All-India Missionary Conference with 136 participants ^[107]; George Leslie Mackay plants church in northern Taiwan ^[108]; Lottie Moon appointed as missionary to China ^[109]
• 1873 - Regions Beyond Missionary Union founded in London in connection with the East London Training Institute for Home and Foreign Missions; first Scripture portion (Gospel of Luke) translated into Pangasinan, a language of the Philippines, by Alfonso Lallave ^[110]
• 1874 - Lord Radstock's first visit to St. Petersburg, Russia, and the beginning of an evangelical awakening among the St. Petersburg nobility; Albert Sturges initiates the Interior Micronesia Mission in the Mortlock Islands under the leadership of Micronesian students from Ohwa
• 1875 - The Foreign Christian Missionary Society organized within the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and Church of Christ movements; Clah, a Canadian Indian convert, brought Christianity to natives at Ft. Wangel, Alaska. He assumed the name of Philip McKay.
• 1876 - In September, a rusty ocean steamer arrives at a port on the Calabar River in what is now Nigeria. That part of Africa was then known as the White Man's Grave. The only woman on board that ship is 29-year-old Mary Slessor, a missionary.^[111]
• 1877 - James Chalmers goes to New Guinea ^[112]; Presbyterians Sheldon Jackson and missionary-widow Amanda McFarland arrive at Ft. Wrangel, Alaska where they join Philip McKay (née Clah) to start missionary work. McFarland was the first white woman in Alaska, and renowned as "Alaska's Courageous Missionary."
• 1878 - Mass movement to Christ begins in Ongole, India^[113]
• 1879 Church of Christ, Scientist founded in Boston by Mary Baker Eddy
• 1879 Knock, Ireland was location of the apparition of Our Lady, Queen of Ireland.
• 1880 - Woman missionary doctor Fanny Butler goes to India ^[114]; Missionary periodical The Gospel in All Lands is launched by A. B. Simpson ^[115]; Justus Henry Nelson and Fannie Bishop Capen Nelson begin 45 years of service in Belém, Pará, Brazil, establishing the first Protestant Church in Amazonia in 1883
• 1881 - Methodist work in Lahore, Pakistan starts in the wake of revivals under Bishop William Taylor; North Africa Mission (now Arab World Ministries) founded on work of Edward Glenny in Algeria^[116]
• 1881-1894 Revised Version, called for by Church of England, used Greek based on Septuagint (B) and (S), Hebrew Masoretic Text used in OT, follows Greek order of words, greater accuracy than AV, includes Apocrypha, scholarship never disputed
• 1882 - James Gilmour, London Missionary Society missionary to Mongolia, goes home to England for a furlough. During that time he published a book: Among the Mongols. It was so well-written that one critic wrote, "Robinson Crusoe has turned missionary, lived years in Mongolia, and wrote a book about it." Concerning the author, the critic said, "If ever on earth there lived a man who kept the law of Christ, and could give proof of it, and be absolutely unconscious that he was giving it to them, it is this man whom the Mongols called 'our Gilmour.'" [11]
• 1883 - Salvation Army enters West Pakistan ^[117]; A.B. Simpson organizes The Missionary Union for the Evangelization of the World. The first classes of the Missionary Training College are held in New York City. Zaire Christian and Missionary Alliance mission field opens.
• 1884 - David Torrance is sent by the Jewish Mission of the Free Church of Scotland as a medical missionary to Palestine
• 1884 Charles Taze Russell founded Bible Student movement known today as Jehovah's Witnesses
• 1885 - Horace Grant Underwood, Presbyterian missionary, and Henry Appenzeller, Methodist missionary, arrive in Korea ^[118]; Scottish Ion Keith-Falconer goes to Aden on the Arabian peninsula^[119]; "Cambridge Seven" -- C. T. Studd, M. Beauchamp, W. W. Cassels, D. E. Hoste, S. P. Smith, A. T. Podhill-Turner, C. H. Polhill-Turner -- go to China as missionaries with the China Inland Mission^[120]
• 1885 Baltimore Catechism
• 1886 - Student Volunteer Movement launched as 100 university and seminary students at Moody's conference grounds at Mount Hermon, Massachusetts, sign the Princeton Pledge which says: "I purpose, God willing, to become a foreign missionary."^[121]
• 1886 Moody Bible Institute
• 1887 -The Hundred missionaries deployed in one year in China under the China Inland Mission. Dr. William Cassidy, a Toronto medical doctor, was ordained as the Christian and Missionary Alliance's first missionary preacher. Unfortunately, en route to China, he died of smallpox. However, Cassidy's death has been called the "spark that ignited the Alliance missionary blaze."
• 1888 - Jonathan Goforth sails to China^[122]; Student Volunteer Movement for foreign missions officially organized with John R. Mott as chairman and Robert Wilder as traveling secretary. The movement's motto, coined by Wilder, was: "The evangelization of the world in this generation.^[123]; Scripture Gift Mission (now Lifewords) founded
• 1889 - Missionary linguist and folklorist Paul Olaf Bodding arrives in India, Santhal Parganas, and continues the work among the Santals started by Skrefsrud and Børresen in 1867; North Africa Mission enters Tripoli as first Protestant mission in Libya^[124]
• 1890 - Central American Mission founded by C. I. Scofield, editor of the Scofield Reference Bible ^[119]; Methodist Charles Gabriel writes missionary song "Send the Light"; John Livingston Nevius of China visits Korea to outline his strategy for missions: 1) Each believer should be a productive member of society and active in sharing his faith; 2) The church in Korea should be distinctly Korean and free of foreign control; 3) The leaders of the Korean church will be selected and trained from its members; 4) Church buildings will be built by Koreans with their own resources^[125]
• 1891 - Samuel Zwemer goes to Arabia ^[126]; Helen Chapman sails for the Congo (Zaire). She married a Danish missionary, William Rasmussen, whom she met during the voyage.
• 1892 - Redcliffe College, Centre for Mission Training founded in Chelsea, London [12]
• 1893 - Eleanor Chestnut goes to China as Presbyterian medical missionary ^[127]; Sudan Interior Mission founded by Rowland Bingham, a graduate of Nyack College ^[128]
• 1893 First Bible translation into Oromiffa is published.
• 1894 - Soatanana Revival begins among Lutheran and LMS churches in Madagascar, lasting 80 years ^[95]
• 1894 The Kingdom of God is Within You, by Leo Tolstoy, start of Christian anarchism
• 1895 - Africa Inland Mission formed by Peter Cameron Scott ^[50]; Japan Bible Society established; Roland Allen sent as missionary for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts to its North China Mission.^[129] Amy Carmichael arrives in India.
• 1896 - Ödön Scholtz founds the first Hungarian Lutheran foreign mission periodical Külmisszió ^[130]
• 1897 - Presbyterian Church (USA) begins work in Venezuela
• 1897 Christian flag, conceived in Brooklyn, New York
• 1898 - Theresa Huntington leaves her New England home for the Middle East. For seven years she will work as an American Board missionary in Elazığ (Kharput) in the Ottoman Empire. Her letters home will be published in a book titled Great Need over the Water ; Archibald Reekie of the Canadian Baptist Ministries arrives in Oruro as the first Protestant missionary to Bolivia. The work of Canadian Baptists led to the guarantee of freedom of religion in Bolivia in 1905.
• 1899 - James Rodgers arrives in Philippines with the Presbyterian Mission ^[131]; Central American Mission enters Guatemala ^[132]
• 1899 Gideons International founded
• 1900 - American Friends open work in Cuba; Ecumenical Missionary Conference in Carnegie Hall, New York (162 mission boards represented) ^[133]; 189 missionaries and their children killed in Boxer Rebellion in China ^[134]; South African Andrew Murray writes The Key to the Missionary Problem in which he challenges the church to hold weeks of prayer for the world ^[135]

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References

1. ^ Matzko, John (2007). "The Encounter of the Young Joseph Smith with Presbyterianism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 40 (3): 68–84.  Presbyterian historian Matzko notes that "Oliver Cowdery claimed that Smith had been 'awakened' during a sermon by the Methodist minister George Lane."
2. ^ Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984, ISBN 0-89098-021-7
3. ^ Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976, ISBN 0-89137-512-0 (paper), ISBN 0-89137-513-9 (cloth)
4. ^ McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, ISBN 978-0-8272-1703-4
5. ^ ^{a b} Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
6. ^ Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (2004)
7. ^ See, e.g., Joseph Smith, Jr. (ed), Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints (Kirtland, OH: F.G. Williams & Co., 1835).
8. ^ Manuscript History of the Church, LDS Church Archives, book A-1, p. 37; reproduced in Dean C. Jessee (comp.) (1989). The Papers of Joseph Smith: Autobiographical and Historical Writings (Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book) 1:302–303.
9. ^ H. Michael Marquardt and Wesley P. Walters (1994). Inventing Mormonism: Tradition and the Historical Record (Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books) p. 160.
10. ^ Adherents.com, Religions by Adherents
11. ^ ^{a b} Penton 1997, pp. 43–62
12. ^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 52
13. ^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 73
14. ^ Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, William J. Schnell, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1956, as cited by Rogerson, page 52. Rogerson notes that it is not clear exactly how many Bible Students left.
15. ^ Jehovah, J.F.Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1934, page 277.
16. ^ "Denominational profile". The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA). http://www.thearda.com/Denoms/D_1107.asp. 
17. ^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 60–75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
18. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 190. "Rutherford wanted to unify the preaching work and, instead of having each individual give his own opinion ... gradually Rutherford himself began to be the main spokesman for the organization."  (Franz quoting Faith on the March, 1957, A. H. MacMillan)
19. ^ ^{a b} Rogerson
20. ^ "Membership and Publishing Statistics", Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As retrieved 2009-08-10
21. ^ Robert William Fogel, The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism University of Chicago Press, 20000 ISBN 0-226-25662-6. excerpt
22. ^ Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House; Edmund Wilson, The American Earthquake.
23. ^ "Vatican I And The Papal Primacy". http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=4748&CFID=13173320&CFTOKEN=20865351. 
24. ^ Collins, Paul (1997-10-24). "Stress on papal primacy led to exaggerated clout for a pope among equals". National Catholic Reporter. http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/1997d/102497/102497f.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-20. 
25. ^ Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger
26. ^ http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html</ref
27. ^ Pius IX in Bäumer, 245
28. ^ and to add the Immaculata to the Litany of Loreto.
29. ^ Bauer 566
30. ^ Civilta Catolica February 6, 1869.
31. ^ Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143
32. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232
33. ^ Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001), p. 729
34. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 240
35. ^ Mystici Corporis, Lumen Gentium and Redemptoris Mater provide a modern Catholic understanding of this link.
36. ^ see Pius XII,Mystici corporis, also John Paul II in Redemptoris Mater: The Second Vatican Council, by presenting Mary in the mystery of Christ, also finds the path to a deeper understanding of the mystery of the Church. Mary, as the Mother of Christ, is in a particular way united with the Church, "which the Lord established as his own body."
37. ^ Baumann in Marienkunde 1163
38. ^ ^ Baumann in Marienkunde, 672
39. ^ Stacy, Mexico and the United States (2003), p. 139
40. ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–72
41. ^ Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), pp. 264–5
42. ^ Franzen 362
43. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 221
44. ^ ^{a b c} Hastings, The Church in Africa (2004), pp. 397–410
45. ^ Natalia Shlikhta (2004) "'Greek Catholic'-'Orthodox'-'Soviet': a symbiosis or a conflict of identities?" in Religion, State & Society, Volume 32, Number 3 (Routledge)
46. ^ Shlomo Lambroza, John D. Klier (2003) Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge University Press)
47. ^ ^{a b} "Jewish-Christian Relations" , by the International Council of Christians and Jews
48. ^ It is no coincidence that in the entry on 'Orthodoxy' in the seventh volume of the Kratkaya Evreiskaya Entsyklopedia, devoted to the Russian Orthodox Church (pp. 733–743), where numerous examples are given of persecution of the Jews in Russia, including religious persecution, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the church, either in legislative terms or in the conduct of policy. Although the authors of the article state that the active role of the Church in inciting the government to conduct anti-Jewish acts (for example in the case of Ivan the Terrible's policy in the defeated territories) is 'obvious', no facts are given in their article to support this. http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?id=787
49. ^ Smith, George. The life of William Carey, D.D., Project Gutenberg, 1885, p. 340
50. ^ ^{a b c d} Kane, p. 95
51. ^ Neill, p. 259
52. ^ ^{a b c d} Barrett, p. 28
53. ^ Kane, p. 124
54. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. IV, p. 113
55. ^ Kane, p. 87
56. ^ Glover, p. 263
57. ^ Tucker, p. 132
58. ^ Kane, pp. 86, 88
59. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. V, p. 179
60. ^ Glover, p. 96
61. ^ Olson, p. 140
62. ^ Kane, 95
63. ^ Olson, p. 283
64. ^ Glover, 306
65. ^ Glover, 73
66. ^ Anderson, p. 610
67. ^ Jones, Francis A. Famous Hymns and Their Authors, Hodder and Stoughton, 1903, pp. 200-203
68. ^ Anderson, p. 63
69. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. V, p. 450
70. ^ Kane, p. 88
71. ^ Anderson, p. 643
72. ^ Glover, p. 74
73. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. IV, p. 73
74. ^ ^{a b c d} Kane, p. 80
75. ^ Anderson, p. 71
76. ^ Neill, 260
77. ^ Glover, p. 117
78. ^ Neill, p. 233
79. ^ Anderson, p. 652
80. ^ ^{a b} Kane, p. 97
81. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. IV, p. 307
82. ^ Neill, p. 245
83. ^ Glover, p. 265
84. ^ Glover, p. 76
85. ^ Glover, p. 149
86. ^ Glover, p. 129
87. ^ Glover, p. 75
88. ^ Kane, p. 89
89. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. V, pp. 227, 228
90. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. IV, p. 90
91. ^ Abi Olowe, 2007, Great Revivals Great Revivalist, Omega Publishers
92. ^ Olson, p. 267
93. ^ Anderson, 235-236
94. ^ Kane, 94
95. ^ ^{a b} Barrett, p. 29
96. ^ Neill, p. 221, 282
97. ^ Olson, p. 156
98. ^ Tucker, p. 225
99. ^ Glover, p. 171
100. ^ Glover, p. 429
101. ^ Kane, p. 94
102. ^ Balmer, Randall Herbert. Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism, Baylor University Press, 2004, p. 764
103. ^ Gailey, p. 49
104. ^ Olson, pp. 156, 282
105. ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. IV, p. 107
106. ^ Anderson, p. 631
107. ^ Olson, p. 163
108. ^ Anderson, pp. 423-424
109. ^ Anderson, p. 471
110. ^ Glover, 134
111. ^ Tucker, p. 171
112. ^ Neill, p. 299
113. ^ Moreau, p. 206
114. ^ Neill, p. 217
115. ^ Anderson, p. 622
116. ^ Olson, p. 152
117. ^ Glover, p. 92
118. ^ Kane, p. 99
119. ^ ^{a b} Olson, p. 157
120. ^ Anderson, p. 111
121. ^ Tucker, 2004, p. 320
122. ^ Anderson, p. 247
123. ^ Kane, p. 103
124. ^ Moreau, p. 577
125. ^ Anderson p. 490
126. ^ Moreau, p. 503
127. ^ Tucker, 2004, p. 402
128. ^ Olson, p. 153
129. ^ Anderson, p. 12
130. ^ Uhalley, Stephen and Xiaoxin Wu. China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future, M.E. Sharpe, 2001, p. 227
131. ^ Neill, p. 292
132. ^ Moreau, p. 418
133. ^ Barrett, p. 30
134. ^ Kane, 98
135. ^ Glover, 369

Further reading

• González, Justo L. (1985). The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-063316-6. 
• Latorette, Kenneth Scott (1975). A History of Christianity, Volume 2. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-064953-4. (paperback). 
• Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). Church History in Plain Language (2nd ed.). ISBN 0-8499-3861-9. 
• Hastings, Adrian (1999). A World History of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802848753. 

External links

History of Christianity Reading Room: Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary). Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History

Church History in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Historical Christianity, A time line with references to the descendants of the early church.

History of Christianity: Modern Christianity
Preceded by: Christianity in the 18th century				19th Century			Followed by: Christianity in the 20th century
BC	1st	2nd	3rd	4th	5th	6th	7th	8th	9th	10th
11th	12th	13th	14th	15th	16th	17th	18th	19th	20th	21st