Crucifixion of Jesus

Crucifixion of Jesus
The Crucifixion , by Vouet, 1622, Genoa

The crucifixion of Jesus and his ensuing death is an event that occurred during the 1st century AD. Jesus, who Christians believe is the Son of God as well as the Messiah, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged, and finally executed on a cross. Collectively referred to as the Passion, Jesus' redemptive suffering and death by crucifixion represent critical aspects of Christian theology, including the doctrines of salvation and atonement.

Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four Canonical gospels, attested to by other contemporary sources, and regarded as a historical event.[1][2] Christians believe Jesus' suffering was foretold in Hebrew scripture, such as in Psalm 22, and Isaiah's songs of the suffering servant.[3] According to the New Testament, Jesus was arrested in Gethsemane following the Last Supper with the twelve Apostles, and forced to stand trial before the Sanhedrin, Pontius Pilate, and Herod Antipas, before being handed over for crucifixion. After being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the "King of the Jews", clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on. Jesus then had to make his way to the place of his crucifixion.

Once at Golgotha, Jesus was offered wine mixed with gall to drink. Matthew's and Mark's Gospels record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hung between two convicted thieves. According to Mark's Gospel, he endured the torment of crucifixion for some six hours from the third hour, at approximately 9 am,[4] until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 pm.[5] The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" in three languages, divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. The Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, as they did to the other two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the crucifixion process), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of Jesus' last words, seven statements altogether.[6] In the Synoptic Gospels, various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion , including darkness, an earthquake, and (in Matthew) the resurrection of saints. Following Jesus' death, his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock-hewn tomb, with Nicodemus assisting. According to Christian tradition, Jesus then rose from the dead two days later (the "third day").

Christians have traditionally understood Jesus' death on the cross to be a knowing and willing sacrifice (given that he did not mount a defense in his trials) which was undertaken as an "agent of God" to atone for humanity's sin and make salvation possible.[7][8][9][10] Most Christians proclaim this sacrifice through the bread and wine of the Eucharist, as a remembrance of the Last Supper, and many also commemorate the event on Good Friday each year.[11][12]

Contents

Accounts of the crucifixion

See also: Historical Jesus

That Jesus was crucified is a well-attested event of Roman history.[13] Early Christians are considered unlikely to have invented Jesus' crucifixion because it would have embarrassed them.[14] Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, the 1968 archeological discovery just north east of Jerusalem of the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century provided good confirmatory evidence of the gospel accounts of crucifixion .[15] The crucified man was identified as Yohan Ben Ha'galgol and probably died about 70 AD, around the time of the Jewish revolt against Rome. The analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. These studies also showed that the man had been crucified in a manner resembling the Gospel accounts. Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, and is now held by the Israel Antiquities Authority and displayed in the Israel Museum.[16][17]

Gospel narratives

Deposition by Rubens, in the Lille Palace of Fine Arts.

The earliest detailed historical narrative accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels.[18] There are other more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate episodes.[19]

According to all four gospels, Jesus was brought to the "Place of a Skull"[20] and crucified with two thieves,[21] with the charge of claiming to be "King of the Jews",[22] and the soldiers divided his clothes[23] before he bowed his head and died.[24] Following his death, Joseph of Arimathea requested the body from Pilate,[25] which he then placed in a new garden tomb.[26]

The three synoptic gospels also describe Simon of Cyrene bearing the cross,[27] the multitude mocking Jesus[28] along with the thieves/robbers/rebels,[29] darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour,[30] and the temple veil being torn from top to bottom.[31] The synoptics also mention several witnesses, including a centurion,[32] and several women who watched from a distance[33] two of whom were present during the burial.[34]

Luke is the only gospel writer to omit the detail of sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed,[35] while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.[36]

There are several details that are only found in one of the gospel accounts. For instance, only Matthew's gospel mentions an earthquake, resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb,[37] while Mark is the only one to state the actual time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 am) and the centurion's report of Jesus' death.[38] The Gospel of Luke’s unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus' words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath.[39] John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier’s subsequent piercing of Jesus' side (as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy), as well as that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial.[40]

According to canonical Gospels, Jesus rose from the dead after three days and appeared to his Disciples on different occasions during a forty day period before ascending to heaven.[41] The account given in Acts of the Apostles, which says Jesus remained with the apostles for forty days, appears to differ from the account in the Gospel of Luke, which makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension.[42][43] However, most biblical scholars agree that St. Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles as a follow-up volume to his Gospel account, and the two works must be considered as a whole.[44]

In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the day goes dark for three hours.[45] Jesus calls out to God, then gives a shout and dies.[45] The curtain of the Temple is torn in two.[45] Matthew follows Mark, adding an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.[46] Luke also follows Mark, though he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he and Jesus will be together in paradise.[47] Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion.[48] John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently.[49]

Other accounts

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Death and resurrection of Jesus

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See also: Josephus on Jesus

Very few non-Christian sources refer to the crucifixion. The earliest non-Christian reference to the crucifixion is likely from Mara Bar-Serapion, a Syriac writer only makes passing mention of a "wise King" executed by the Jews in a rhethorical letter.[50] written between 73AD and the 3rd century.[50][51][52][53][54][55] Roman historian Tacitus, in his Annals (c. AD 116), mentions only in passing that "Christus...suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators..."[56] Similarly, Greek satirist Lucian refers to Jesus only as "the distinguished personage who introduced their novel rites, and was crucified on that account."[57]

Additionally, 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus (in a disputed passage[58]) records:

Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.
—Josephus , Antiquities of the Jews - XVIII, 3:8-10

Another possible Jewish reference to the crucifixion ("hanging" cf. Luk 23:39; Gal 3:13) is found in the Babylonian Talmud:

On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, ‘He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostasy. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf.’ But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover!
—Sanhedrin 43a,  Babylonian Talmud (Soncino Edition)

Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above passage is likely to be about Jesus.[59]

In opposition to the vast majority of Biblical and mainstream scholarship, Muslims maintain that Jesus was not crucified and that he was not killed by any other means. They hold this belief based on various interpretations of the following verse in the Qur'an:

That they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them [or it appeared so unto them], and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not: Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise.
—Quran 4:157–158

Date, place and people present

See also: Chronology of Jesus

Date of the crucifixion

Main article: Date of the crucifixion
Jesus helped by Simon of Cyrene, 19th century Brazilian depiction.

Although there is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus, it is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on a Friday on or near Passover (Nisan 15), during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (who ruled AD 26-36). Since an observational calendar was used during the time of Jesus, including an ascertainment of the new moon and ripening barley harvest, the exact day or even month for Passover in a given year is subject to speculation.[60][61] Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion, including the Canonical Gospels, the chronology of the life of Apostle Paul, as well as different astronomical models. The most frequently suggested date is Friday, April 3, AD 33.[62][63][64]

Path to the crucifixion

Main article: Via Dolorosa

The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene who is made to carry the cross,[65] while in the Gospel of John, Jesus is said to "bear" his own cross.[Jn. 19:17]

Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"[Lk. 23:28-31]

Traditionally, the path that Jesus took is called Via Dolorosa (Latin for "Way of Grief" or "Way of Suffering") and is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is marked by nine of the fourteen Stations of the Cross. It passes the Ecce Homo Church and the last five stations are inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

There is no reference to the legendary[66] Veronica in the Gospels, but sources such as Acta Sanctorum describe her as a pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead.[67][68][69][70]

Place of the crucifixion

See also: Empty tomb
A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the historical site based on a German documentary.

The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls,[Jn. 19:20] [Heb. 13:12] accessible to passers-by[Mt. 27:39] [Mk. 15:21,29-30] and observable from some distance away.[Mk. 15:40] Eusebius identified its location only as being north of Mount Zion,[71] which is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times.

Calvary is an English name derived from the Latin word for skull (calvaria), which is how Jerome translated the Aramaic word Gûlgaltâ which identifies the place where Jesus was crucified. Although the text does not indicate why it was so designated, several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place called "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.[72]

The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Christian Quarter of the Old City, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon’s Calvary), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb, has been promoted since the 19th century, mostly by Protestants.

People present at the crucifixion

The Gospel of Luke[23:28-31] states that on the way to Calvary Jesus spoke to a number of women within the crowd of mourners following him, addressing them as "Daughters of Jerusalem". Biblical scholars have produced various theories about the identity of these women, and those actually present during the crucifixion itself, including among them Mary (Jesus' mother) and Mary Magdalene.[73][74]

Luke's Gospel does not mention that Jesus' mother was present during crucifixion . However, the Gospel of John[19:26-27] does place her at the crucifixion and states that while on the Cross: Jesus saw his own mother, and the disciple standing near whom he loved, he said to his mother, "Woman, behold your son".

The Gospel of John also places other women (The Three Marys), at the Cross. It states that Near the cross of Jesus stood his mother, his mother's sister, Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene.[Jn. 19:25] It is uncertain whether the Gospel of John totally refers to three or four women at the Cross. References to the women are also made in Matthew 27:56 and Mark 15:40 (which also mentions Salome) and comparing these references they all seem to include Mary Magdalene.[75]

The Gospel of Mark states that Roman soldiers were also present at the crucifixion : And when the centurion, who stood there in front of Jesus, heard his cry and saw how he died, he said, "Surely this man was the Son of God!".[Mk. 15:39]

Method and manner of crucifixion

Main article: Dispute about Jesus' execution method
Bronzino's depiction of the Crucifixion with 3 nails, no ropes, and a hypopodium standing support, c. 1545.

Given that the New Testament does not provide exact details of the process of Jesus' crucifixion, various elements of the method employed have been subject to debate, as discussed below.

Shape of gibbet

Whereas most Christians believe the gibbet on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two-beamed cross, debate exists regarding the view that a single upright stake was used. Part of the debate has centered around the ambiguity of the Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings. The Koine Greek terms used in the New Testament are stauros (σταυρός) and xylon (ξύλον). The word stauros, comes from the Greek root "sta" meaning to stand.[76] Historically it referred to a sacrificial post, and may have also referred to a cross.[76] The words stauros and (ana)stayroo may not definitively determine the shape of the gibbet."[77][78][79]

Nails

The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest 3 nails while others suggest 4 nails.[80] However, throughout history larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails.[81] These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion.[82] In the Western Church, before the Renaissance usually 4 nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use 3 nails, with one foot placed on the other.[82] Nails are almost always depicted in art, although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross.[82] The tradition also carries to Christian emblems, e.g. the Jesuits use 3 nails under the IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.[83]

The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir (χειρ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot's space (between the capitate and lunate bones) without fracturing any bones.[84] Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm.[85] Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.[86]

Standing platform

Another issue has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century Rasmus Bartholin considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic.[81] In the 20th century, forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions.[85] His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by the Nazis in the Dachau concentration camp during World War II), death comes rather quickly.[87]

Last words of Jesus

Main article: Sayings of Jesus on the cross
The Crucifixion, seen from the Cross, by James Tissot, 19th century.

The gospel writers record seven statements uttered by Jesus while he was on the cross:

  1. "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do."[Lk. 23:34]
  2. "Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise."[Lk. 23:43]
  3. "Woman, behold, your son!" [Jn. 19:25-27]
  4. "E′li, E′li, la′ma sa‧bach‧tha′ni?" [Mt. 27:46] [Mk. 15:34] (Aramaic for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?"). It is also a quotation of the first line of Psalm 22. The latter refers to piercing of hands and feet, and has been interpreted as a reference to Crucifixion .
  5. "I thirst."[Jn. 19:28]
  6. "It is finished."[Jn. 19:30]
  7. "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit!"[Lk. 23:46]

These are all short utterances. See the section below on the medical aspects of crucifixion , on how in the face of exhaustion asphyxia, obtaining enough air to utter any words on the cross can be very tiring and painful for the victim.[88][89]

The last words of Jesus have been the subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number of authors have written books specifically devoted to the last sayings of Christ.[90][91][92][93][94][95] However, since the statements of the last words differ between the four canonical Gospels, James Dunn has expressed doubts about their historicity.[96]

Phenomena during the crucifixion

Mark mentions darkness in the daytime during Jesus' crucifixion and the Temple veil being torn in two when Jesus dies.[45] Matthew follows Mark, adding an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.[46] Luke also follows Mark.[47] In John, there are no such miraculous signs referred to except for Jesus' resurrection from the grave.[97]

Darkness and eclipse

Main article: Crucifixion eclipse

In the synoptic narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky is "darkened for 3 hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). Both Roman orator Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Origen refer to Greek historian Phlegon as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place"[98]

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Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian Thallus when denying the possibility of a solar eclipse: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun."[99] A solar eclipse concurrent with a full moon is a scientific impossibility. Christian apologist Tertullian wrote "In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives."[100] The darkness was reported as far away as Heliopolis and apparently the unnatural occurrence was referred to by the Apostle Paul when converting Dionysius to Christianity.[101]

Humphreys and Waddington of Oxford University reconstructed the scenarios for a lunar eclipse on that day.[102][103] They concluded that:

"This eclipse was visible from Jerusalem at moonrise.... first visible from Jerusalem at about 6:20pm (the start of the Jewish Sabbath and also the start of Passover day in A.D. 33) with about 20% of its disc in the umbra of the earth's shadow .... The eclipse finished some thirty minutes later at 6:50pm."

Moreover, their calculations showed that the 20% umbra shadow was positioned close to the leading edge, the first visible portion at moonrise. These authors note that the Apostle Peter's reference to a "moon of blood"[Acts 2:20] (a term commonly used for a lunar eclipse because of the reddish color of the light refracted onto the moon through the Earth's atmosphere) may be a reference to this eclipse. It should be noted, however, that in the preceding verse of the same passage, St. Peter expressly mentions that "the sun shall be turned to darkness", which would suggest a solar eclipse in conjunction with the lunar one.[Acts 2:20]

Temple veil, earthquake and resurrection of dead saints

The synoptic gospels state that the veil of the temple was torn from top to bottom. According to Josephus, the curtain in Herod's temple would have been nearly 60 feet (18 m) high and 4 inches (100 mm) thick. According to Hebrews 9:1-10, this curtain was representative of the separation between God and man, beyond which only the High Priest was permitted to pass, and then only once each year[cf. Ex. 30:10] to enter into God's presence and make atonement for the sins of Israel. [Lev. 16] Many Bible expositors agree that the rending of the veil is symbolic of Jesus establishing a new and living way of access to God[Heb. 9:11-15], see New Covenant.

The Gospel of Matthew states that there were earthquakes, splitting rocks, and the graves of dead saints were opened (and subsequently resurrected after the resurrection of Jesus). These resurrected saints went into the holy city and appeared to many people, but their subsequent fate is never elaborated upon.[Mt. 27:51–53]

In the synoptic accounts, the centurion in charge, witnessing these events, says: "Truly this was the Son of God!"[Mt. 27:54] or "Truly this man was the Son of God!"[Mk. 15:39] or "Certainly this man was innocent!"[Lk. 23:47]

Deposition from the Cross

The taking of Jesus' body down from the cross by Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea is often known in art as the "descent" or "deposition" from the cross.[104]

The death state of Jesus

Main article: Harrowing of hell

Jesus' body was laid in the grave. The state and location of Jesus' soul is the subject of disagreement among Christians. Some believe he was active in the underworld. This is known as the harrowing of hell. Others believe his soul was in heaven.[105] Others again believe that he was literally dead and "asleep" waiting for his own resurrection.

Theological significance

Christology of the crucifixion

See also: Lamb of God

The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for Christological analysis, from the Canonical Gospels to the Pauline Epistles.[106]

A series of articles on
Christology

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Christ
Pre-existence of Christ
Logos (The Word)
Incarnation • Nativity
Person of Christ
Hypostatic union
Knowledge of Christ
Perfection of Christ
Imitation of Christ
Threefold office

In Johannine "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory.[107][108] This builds on the salvific theme of the Gospel of John which begins in John 1:36 with John the Baptist's proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world".[7][109] Further reinforcement of the concept is provided in Revelation 21:14 where the "lamb slain but standing" is the only one worthy of handling the scroll (i.e. the book) containing the names of those who are to be saved.[9]

A central element in the Christology presented in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".[110] In this view, as in Acts 2:23, the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God.[110][111]

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.[112] For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8.[112] In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8) died "at the right time" (Romans 4:25) based on the plan of God.[112] For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the Resurrection of Jesus.[112]

John Calvin supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in Pilate's Court Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father.[8][113] This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the Eastern and Western Churches. In the Eastern Church Sergei Bulgakov argued that the crucifixion of Jesus was "pre-eternally" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam.[10] In the Western Church, Karl Rahner elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water.[114]

Atonement

Main article: Atonement in Christianity

Jesus' death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death of Jesus as compared to his words.[115] According to the substitutionary atonement view, Jesus' death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God.[116] By contrast the moral influence theory of atonement focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus' teaching, and sees Jesus' death as a martyrdom.[117] Since the Middle Ages there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity. Evangelical Protestants typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of penal substitution. Liberal Protestants typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the moral influence theory of atonement. Both views are popular within the Roman Catholic church, with the satisfaction doctrine incorporated into the idea of penance.[116]

In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ[118] which in the encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor of Pope Pius XI were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.[119] Pope John Paul II referred to these Acts of Reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."[120]

Among Eastern Orthodox Christians, another common view is Christus Victor.[121] This holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and Satan. Because of his perfection, voluntary death, and Resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through faith in Jesus.[122]

Medical aspects of the crucifixion

A number of theories that attempt to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross via medical knowledge of the 19th and 20th centuries have been proposed by a range of people, including physicians, historians and even mystics.

Most theories proposed by trained physicians (with specialties ranging from forensic medicine to ophthalmology) conclude that Jesus endured tremendous amounts of pain and suffering on the Cross before his death. In 2006, general practitioner John Scotson reviewed over 40 publications on the cause of death of Jesus and theories ranged from cardiac rupture to pulmonary embolism.[123]

Bronzino's Deposition of Christ

As early as 1847, drawing on John 19:34, physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ’s death and it influenced a number of other people.[124][125] The asphyxia theory has been the subject of several experiments that simulate crucifixion in healthy volunteers and many physicians agree that crucifixion causes a profound disruption of the victim’s ability to breathe. A side effect of exhaustive asphyxia is that the crucifixion victim will gradually find it more and more challenging to obtain enough breath to speak. This provides a possible explanation for the accounts that the last words of Christ were short utterances.[126]

The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross would have left Jesus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and that the stage was set for a complex interplay of simultaneous physiological insults: dehydration, massive trauma and soft tissue injury (especially from the prior scourging), inadequate respiration, and strenuous physical exertion, leading to cardiovascular collapse.[127][128]

In her 1944 book Poem of the Man God Italian writer and mystic Maria Valtorta (who had no medical education) provided a very detailed account of the death of Jesus that supports the cardiovascular collapse theory, compounded by partial asphyxiation, and she wrote that the account was dictated to her by Jesus himself in a vision.[129] Endocrinologist Nicholas Pende expressed agreement with Valtorta's account and expressed surprise at the level of detail in which Valtorta depicted Christ's spasms in crucifixion .[130]

Writing in the Journal of the American Medical Association, physician William Edwards and his colleagues supported the combined cardiovascular collapse (via hypovolemic shock) and exhaustion asphyxia theories, assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the Gospel of John[19:34] was pericardial fluid.[131] Some Christian Apologists seem to favor this theory and maintain that this medical anomaly would have been a fact that the author of the Gospel of John would have been tempted to leave out, had he not been interested in accurate reporting.[132]

In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus, physician and forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe provides a set of theories that attempt to explain the nailing, pains and death of Jesus in great detail.[133][134] Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner.[135] These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.[135]

Pierre Barbet, a French physician, and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris,[136] advanced a set of detailed theories on the death of Jesus. He hypothesized that Jesus would have had to relax his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia. Barbet hypothesized that a crucified person would have to use his pierced feet to lift his body in order to obtain enough breath to speak.[137] Some of Barbet's theories, e.g., location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe.

Ophthalmologist and pastor C. Truman Davis also published a physician's view of the crucifixion , agreeing with Barbet, but his analysis is far less detailed than Zugibe.[138]

Orthopedic surgeon Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion , but also looked backed at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along Via Dolorosa.[139][140]

In an article for the Catholic Medical Association, Phillip Bishop and physiologist Brian Church suggested a new theory based on suspension trauma.[141]

In 2003, historians FP Retief and L Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.[142]

Crucifixion in art, symbolism and devotions

Main article: Crucifixion in the arts

Since the crucifixion of Jesus, the cross has become a key element of Christian symbolism, and the crucifixion scene has been a key element of Christian art, giving rise to specific artistic themes such as Ecce Homo, The Raising of the Cross, Descent from the Cross and Entombment of Christ.

The crucifixion, seen from the cross by Tissot presented a novel approach at the end of the 19th century, in which the crucifixion scene was portrayed from the perspective of Jesus.[143][144]

The symbolism of the cross which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times and Justin Martyr who died in 165 describes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol, although the crucifix appeared later.[145][146] Masters such as Caravaggio, Rubens and Titian have all depicted the Crucifixion scene in their works.

Devotions based on the process of crucifixion , and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians. The Stations of the Cross follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus, while the Rosary of the Holy Wounds is used to meditate on the wounds of Jesus as part of the crucifixion .

The presence of the Virgin Mary under the Cross[Jn. 19:26-27] has in itself been the subject of Marian art, and well known Catholic symbolism such as the Miraculous Medal and Pope John Paul II's Coat of Arms bearing a Marian Cross. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross".[147][148] Well known works of Christian art by masters such as Raphael (e.g., the Mond Crucifixion), and Caravaggio (e.g., his Entombment) depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene.

Gallery of art

For larger galleries, please see: Icons of crucifixion and Paintings of crucifixion

See also

References

  1. ^ Christopher M. Tuckett in The Cambridge companion to Jesus edited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 9780521796781 pages 123-124
  2. ^ Funk, Robert W.; Jesus Seminar (1998). The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper. 
  3. ^ Cross, Frank L.; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). "The Passion". The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 
  4. ^ Mark 15:25
  5. ^ Mark 15:34-37
  6. ^ Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
  7. ^ a b Johannine Christology and the Early Church by T. E. Pollard 2005 ISBN 0521018684 page 21
  8. ^ a b Calvin's Christology by Stephen Edmondson 2004 ISBN 0521541549 page 91
  9. ^ a b Studies in Revelation by M. R. De Haan, Martin Ralph DeHaan 1998 ISBN 0825424852 page 103
  10. ^ a b The Lamb of God by Sergei Bulgakov 2008 ISBN 0802827799 page 129
  11. ^ The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology by Alan Richardson, John Bowden 1983 ISBN 0664227481 page 189
  12. ^ Worshiping with the Church Fathers by Christopher A. Hall 2009 ISBN 083083866X page 65
  13. ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0060616628. "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact." 
  14. ^ "Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.
  15. ^ David Freedman, 2000, Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4, page 299.
  16. ^ Crucifixion Article
  17. ^ Article on the Crucifixion of Jesus
  18. ^ Matthew 27:33-44; Mark 15:22-32; Luke 23:33-43; John 19:17-30
  19. ^ St Mark's Gospel and the Christian faith by Michael Keene 2002 ISBN 0-7487-6775-4 pages 24-25
  20. ^ Matthew 27:33 - "place called Golgotha (which means Place of a Skull)"; Mark 15:22 (same as Matthew); Luke 23:32-33 - "place that is called The Skull"; John 19:17 - "place called The Place of a Skull, which in Aramaic is called Golgotha"
  21. ^ Matthew 27:38; Mark 15:27-28; Luke 23:33; John 19:18
  22. ^ Matthew 27:37 - "This is Jesus, the King of the Jews."; Mark 15:26 - "The King of the Jews."; Luke 23:38 - "This is the King of the Jews." Some manuscripts add in letters of Greek and Latin and Hebrew; John 19:19-22 - "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." "...it was written in Aramaic, in Latin, and in Greek."
  23. ^ Matthew 27:35-36; Mark 15:24; Luke 23:34; John 19:23-24
  24. ^ Matthew 27:50; Mark 15:37; Luke 23:46; John 19:30
  25. ^ Matthew 27:57-58; Mark 15:42-43; Luke 23:50-52; John 19:38
  26. ^ Matthew 27:59-60; Mark 15:46; Luke 23:53; John 19:41-42
  27. ^ Matthew 27:31-32; Mark 15:20-21; Luke 23:26
  28. ^ Matthew 27:39-43; Mark 15:29-32; Luke 23:35-37
  29. ^ Matthew 27:44; Mark 15:32; Luke 23:39
  30. ^ Matthew 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44-45
  31. ^ Matthew 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45
  32. ^ Matthew 27:54; Mark 15:39; Luke 23:47
  33. ^ Matthew 27:55-56; Mark 15:40-41; Luke 23:49
  34. ^ Matthew 27:61; Mark 15:47; Luke 23:54-55
  35. ^ Matthew 27:34; 27:47-49; Mark 15:23; 15:35-36; John 19:29-30
  36. ^ Mark 15:45; John 19:38
  37. ^ Matthew 27:51; 27:62-66
  38. ^ Mark 15:25; 15:44-45
  39. ^ Luke 23:27-32; 23:40-41; 23:48; 23:56
  40. ^ John 19:31-37; 19:39-40
  41. ^ John 19:30–31; Mark 16:1; Mark 16:6
  42. ^ Geza Vermes, The Resurrection, (Penguin, 2008) page 148.
  43. ^ E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, (Penguin, 1993), page 276.
  44. ^ Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, (Intervarsity, 1990) pages 125, 366.
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  46. ^ a b Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Matthew," p. 129-270
  47. ^ a b Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Luke," p. 267-364
  48. ^ Ehrman, Bart D.. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4
  49. ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "John" pp. 365-440
  50. ^ a b Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. p 53
  51. ^ The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 9780805443653 pages 141-142 and 140-143
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  53. ^ Catherine M. Chin (July 2006). "Rhetorical Practice in the Chreia Elaboration of Mara bar Serapion". Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 9 (2). http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol9No2/HV9N2Chin.html. Retrieved 2008-02-02. 
  54. ^ Kirby, Peter: Mara Bar-Serapion. In: Early Christian Writings. 2 February 2006
  55. ^ Bruce, F.F. (1981). The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. ISBN 0802822193. Archived from the original on 2008-06-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080624171832/http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/ffbruce/ntdocrli/ntdocc10.htm. 
  56. ^ Tacitus. "Annals, XXV.44". http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/roman/tacitus/annals/bookxv.html. 
  57. ^ Lucian. H. W. Fowler. ed. The Death of Peregrine, 11-13. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm. 
  58. ^ Louis Feldman counts 87 articles published during the period of 1937-1980, "the overwhelming majority of which question its authenticity in whole or in part". Feldman, Louis H (1989). Josephus, the Bible, and History. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 430. ISBN 9004089314. http://books.google.com/?id=lV70mR-E0DQC. 
  59. ^ Goldstein, Morris (1950). Jesus in the Jewish Tradition. New York: Macmillan Co.. 
  60. ^ "Tractate Sanhedrin 10b", Babylonian Talmud, http://www.come-and-hear.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_10.html 
  61. ^ "Tractate Sanhedrin 11b", Babylonian Talmud, http://www.come-and-hear.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_11.html 
  62. ^ Maier, P.L. (1968). "Sejanus, Pilate, and the Date of the Crucifixion". Church History 37 (1): 3–13. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3163182. 
  63. ^ Fotheringham, J.K. (1934). "The evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion". Journal of Theological Studies 35: 146–162. http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/astronomy_fotheringham.pdf. 
  64. ^ The Mystery of the Last Supper, by Colin J. Humphreys (2011), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-73200-0 page 193
  65. ^ Matthew 27:32, Mark 15:21, Luke 23:26
  66. ^ Lavinia Cohn-Sherbok, Who's who in Christianity, (Routledge 1998), page 303.
  67. ^ Notes and Queries, Volume 6 July–December 1852, London, page 252
  68. ^ The Archaeological journal (UK), Volume 7, 1850 page 413
  69. ^ Saint Veronica at the Catholic encyclopedia
  70. ^ Alban Butler, 2000 Lives of the Saints ISBN 0-86012-256-5 page 84
  71. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea. Onomasticon (Concerning the Place Names in Sacred Scripture). http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_02_trans.htm#G_THE_GOSPELS. 
  72. ^ Eucherius of Lyon. "Letter to the Presbyter Faustus". http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm. "The three more frequented exit gates are one on the west, another on the east, and a third on the north. As you enter the city from the northern side, the first of the holy places due to the condition of the directions of the streets is to the church which is called the Martyrium, which was by Constantine with great reverence not long ago built up. Next, to the west one visits the connecting places Golgotha and the Anastasis; indeed the Anastasis is in the place of the resurrection, and Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was. These are however separated places outside of Mount Sion, where the failing rise of the place extended itself to the north." 
  73. ^ Jenny Schroedel, 2006, The Everything Mary Book ISBN 978-1-59337-713-7 page 23
  74. ^ Carol Meyers, 2001, Women in Scripture ISBN 978-0-8028-4962-5 page 119
  75. ^ John Phillips, 2001, Exploring the Gospel of John ISBN 978-0-8254-3489-1 page 366
  76. ^ a b Encyclopedia of Religions Vol. I: A-D by John G. R. Forlong 2008 ISBN 1605204854 pages 491-492
  77. ^ Egon Brandenburger, The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, "Stauros", Colin Brown publ., Vol. 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1975), p. 391.
  78. ^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, σταυρός
  79. ^ Greek Word Study Tool
  80. ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0802837859 page 826
  81. ^ a b Encyclopedia of Biblical Literature, Part 2 by John Kitto 2003 ISBN 0766159809 page 591
  82. ^ a b c Renaissance art: a topical dictionary by Irene Earls 1987 ISBN 0313246580 page 64
  83. ^ The visual arts: a history by Hugh Honour, John Fleming 1995 ISBN 0810939282 page 526
  84. ^ The Crucifixion and Death of a Man Called Jesus by David A Ball 2010 ISBN 1615071288 pages 82-84
  85. ^ a b The Chronological Life of Christ by Mark E. Moore 2007 ISBN 0899009557 page 639-643
  86. ^ Holman Concise Bible Dictionary Holman, 2011 ISBN 0805495487 page 148
  87. ^ Crucifixion and the Death Cry of Jesus Christ by Geoffrey L Phelan MD, 2009 ISBN pages 106-111
  88. ^ Medical Analysis of Crucifixion
  89. ^ _of_jesus.htm Catholic Doctors on Crucifixion [dead link]
  90. ^ David Anderson-Berry, 1871 The Seven Sayings of Christ on the Cross, Glasgow: Pickering & Inglis Publishers
  91. ^ Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, page 26
  92. ^ Arthur Pink, 2005 The Seven Sayings of the Saviour on the Cross Baker Books ISBN 0-8010-6573-9
  93. ^ Simon Peter Long, 1966 The wounded Word: A brief meditation on the seven sayings of Christ on the cross Baker Books
  94. ^ John Ross Macduff, 1857 The Words of Jesus New York: Thomas Stanford Publishers, page 76
  95. ^ Alexander Watson, 1847 The seven sayings on the Cross John Masters Publishers, London, page 5
  96. ^ James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779-781.
  97. ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302-310
  98. ^ Origen. "Contra Celsum (Against Celsus), Book 2, XXXIII". http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen162.html. 
  99. ^ Donaldson, Coxe (1888). The ante-Nicene fathers. 6. New York: The Christian Literature Publishing Co.. p. 136. http://books.google.com/books?id=P5gsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA136#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  100. ^ Tertullian. "Apologeticum". http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian01.html. 
  101. ^ Parker, John (1897). "Letter VII. Section II. To Polycarp--Hierarch. & Letter XI. Dionysius to Apollophanes, Philosopher.". The Works of Dionysius the Arepagite. London: James Parker and Co.. pp. 148–149, 182–183. http://books.google.com/books?id=D7noNM1MNDcC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  102. ^ Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, The Date of the Crucifixion Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[1]
  103. ^ Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 9780521732000, p. 193 (However note that Humphreys places the Last Supper on a Wednesday)
  104. ^ Thomas F. Mathews, Avedis Krikor Sanjian - 1991 - The Descent from the Cross (Page 286) The Descent from the Cross, or the Deposition, first appeared in Byzantine art shortly after Icono- clasm, in the famous Paris Gregory manuscript of 88o—83, and by the tenth century it had already ...
  105. ^ Thomas (van Aquino) Summa theologica - "I answer that, It is an article of faith that Christ was truly dead: hence it is an error against faith to assert ... Consequently, to say that Christ was a man during the three days of His death simply and without qualification"
  106. ^ Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0664257526 page 106
  107. ^ The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0664243517 page 79
  108. ^ The Johannine exegesis of God by Daniel Rathnakara Sadananda 2005 ISBN 3110182483 page 281
  109. ^ Studies in Early Christology by Martin Hengel 2004 ISBN 0567042804 page 371
  110. ^ a b New Testament christology by Frank J. Matera 1999 ISBN 0664256945 page 67
  111. ^ The speeches in Acts: their content, context, and concerns by Marion L. Soards 1994 ISBN 0664252214 page 34
  112. ^ a b c d Christology by Hans Schwarz 1998 ISBN 0802844634 pages 132-134
  113. ^ The Reading and Preaching of the Scriptures by Hughes Oliphant Old 2002 ISBN 0802847757 page 125
  114. ^ Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0860120066 page 74
  115. ^ For example, see Matthew 6:14–15. See also Sermon on the Mount
  116. ^ a b "Doctrine of the Atonement". Catholic Encyclopedia. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02055a.htm. 
  117. ^ A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation, (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011) ISBN 9781456389802
  118. ^ Ball, Ann (2003). Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices. Huntington, Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 087973910X. 
  119. ^ "Miserentissimus Redemptor". Encyclical of Pope Pius XI. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_08051928_miserentissimus-redemptor_en.html. 
  120. ^ "Vatican archives". http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html. 
  121. ^ See Development of the Christus Victor view after Aulén
  122. ^ Johnson, Alan F., and Robert E. Webber (1993). What Christians Believe: A Biblical and Historical Summary. Zondervan. pp. 261–263. 
  123. ^ John Scotson Medical theories on the cause of death in Crucifixion Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Aug 2006..pdf[dead link]
  124. ^ William Stroud, 1847, Treatise on the Physical Death of Jesus Christ London: Hamilton and Adams.
  125. ^ William Seymour, 2003, The Cross in Tradition, History and Art ISBN 0-7661-4527-1
  126. ^ Columbia University page of Pierre Barbet on Crucifixion
  127. ^ The Search for the Physical Cause of Christ's Death BYU Studies
  128. ^ The Physical Death Of Jesus Christ, Study by The Mayo Clinic citing studies by Bucklin R (The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ. Sci Law 1970; 10:14-26), Mikulicz-Radeeki FV (The chest wound in the crucified Christ. Med News 1966;14:30-40), Davis CT (The Crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medical point of view. Ariz Med 1965;22:183-187), and Barbet P (A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon, Earl of Wicklow (trans) Garden City, NY, Doubleday Image Books 1953, pp 12-18 37-147, 159-175, 187-208).
  129. ^ Maria Valtorta 1944, The Poem of the Man God, Valtorta Publishing, ISBN 99926-45-57-1.
  130. ^ Pende Quotes on Valtorta http://www.sacredheartofjesus.ca/MariaValtorta/M%20A%20R%20I%20A.htm
  131. ^ Edwards, William D.; Gabel, Wesley J.; Hosmer, Floyd E; On the Physical Death of Jesus, JAMA March 21, 1986, Vol 255, No. 11, pp 1455–1463 [2]
  132. ^ Jesus Died on the Cross
  133. ^ Frederick Zugibe, 2005, The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry Evans Publishing, ISBN 1-59077-070-6
  134. ^ JW Hewitt, The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion Harvard Theological Review, 1932
  135. ^ a b Crucifixion experiments
  136. ^ New Scientist Oct 12, 1978, page 96
  137. ^ Barbet, Pierre. Doctor at Calvary, New York: Image Books, 1963.
  138. ^ .html C. Truman Davis A medical explanation of what Jesus endured[dead link]
  139. ^ Keith Maxwell MD on the Crucifixion of Christ
  140. ^ -From-a-Medical-Point-of-View/Page1.html Jesus' Suffering and Crucifixion from a Medical Point of View
  141. ^ Catholic Medical Association, Linacre Quarterly, August 2006
  142. ^ FP Retief and L Cilliers The history and pathology of Crucifixion South African medical journal, 2003.[3]
  143. ^ James Tissot: the Life of Christ by Judith F. Dolkart 2009 ISBN 1858944961 page 201
  144. ^ Rookmaaker, H. R. (1970). Modern Art and the Death of a Culture. Crossway Books. p. 73. ISBN 0891077995. 
  145. ^ Catholic encyclopedia on Symbolism
  146. ^ Catholic encyclopedia on Veneration of Images
  147. ^ EWTN: Mary was United to Jesus on the Cross
  148. ^ Vatican website on Behold Your Mother!

Further reading

  • Cousar, Charles B. (1990). A Theology of the Cross: The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800615581. 
  • Dennis, John (2006). "Jesus’ Death in John's Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts". Currents in Biblical Research 4 (3): 331–363. doi:10.1177/1476993X06064628. 
  • Dilasser, Maurice (1999). The Symbols of the Church. ISBN 081462538. 
  • Green, Joel B. (1988). The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3161453492. 
  • Humphreys, Colin J.; W. G. Waddington (December 1983). "Dating the Crucifixion". Nature 306 (5945): 743–746. Bibcode 1983Natur.306..743H. doi:10.1038/306743a0. 
  • Rosenblatt, Samuel (December 1956). "The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law". Journal of Biblical Literature (The Society of Biblical Literature) 75 (4): 315–321. doi:10.2307/3261265. JSTOR 3261265. 
  • McRay, John (1991). Archaeology and the New Testament. Baker Books. ISBN 0801062675. 
  • Sloyan, Gerard S. (1995). The Crucifixion of Jesus. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800628861. 
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