- First seven Ecumenical Councils
In Christianity, the first seven Ecumenical Councils, from the
First Council of Nicaea (325) to theSecond Council of Nicaea (787), represent an attempt to reach an orthodox consensus. TheEast-West Schism , formally dated to 1054, was still almost three centuries off.Eastern Orthodox ,Catholic , andAnglican churches all trace their clergy byapostolic succession back to this period and earlier. However, breaks of unity that still persist today had occurred even during this period. TheAssyrian Church of the East rejected theCouncil of Ephesus (431). TheOriental Orthodox churches recognise the first three and consider theSecond Council of Ephesus (449) to be theFourth Ecumenical Council . The Catholic Church rejects theQuinisext Council .This era begins with the First Council of Nicaea, which established the
Nicene Creed that came to be seen as the touchstone oforthodoxy on the doctrine of theTrinity . At this point, though the emperors had already ceased to reside habitually atRome , the church in that city was seen as the first church among churchesDurant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972] In 330 Constantine built his "New Rome", which became known asConstantinople , in the East. And all the seven councils were held in the East, specifically inAnatolia . In 410 theVisigoths sacked Rome, but then withdrew. In 568 theLombards invadedItaly and established a Kingdom of Italy that lasted until 774, for nearly all of which period (until 751) Rome was governed by theExarchate of Ravenna , representing theByzantine emperor at Constantinople.The first scholar to consider this time period as a whole was
Philip Schaff , who wrote "The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church", first published after his death in 1901. The topic is of particular interest to proponents ofPaleo-orthodoxy who seek to recover the church before the schisms.Councils
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils, as commonly understood, are:
# First Council of Nicaea (325)
# First Council of Constantinople (381)
# Council of Ephesus (431)
# Council of Chalcedon (451)
# Second Council of Constantinople (553)
# Third Council of Constantinople (680)
# Second Council of Nicaea (787)However, not all of these Councils have been universally recognised as ecumenical. As indicated above, the Assyrian Church of the East accepts only the first two, and Oriental Orthodoxy only three. Present-day nontrinitarians, such as
Unitarian s, Latter-day Saints and other Mormons, andJehovah's Witnesses , reject all seven Councils.First Council of Nicaea (325)
Emperor Constantine convened this council to settle a controversial issue, the relation between
Jesus Christ andGod the Father . The Emperor wanted to establish universal agreement on it. Representatives came from across the Empire, subsidized by the Emperor. Previous to this council, the bishops would hold local councils, such as theCouncil of Jerusalem , but there had been no universal, or ecumenical, council.The council drew up a creed, the original Nicene Creed, which received nearly unanimous support. The council's description of "God's only-begotten Son",
Jesus Christ , as of the same substance withGod the Father became a touchstone of ChristianTrinitarianism . The council also addressed the issue of dating Easter (seeQuartodecimanism andEaster controversy ), recognised the right of the see of Alexandria to jurisdiction outside of its own province (by analogy with the jurisdiction exercised by Rome) and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and the other provinces [ [http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm canon 6] ] and approved the custom by which Jerusalem was honoured, but without the metropolitan dignity. [ [http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm canon 7] ]The Council was opposed by the Arians, and Constantine tried to reconcile
Arius , after whom Arianism is named, with the Church. Even when Arius died in 336, one year before the death of Constantine, the controversy continued, with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or another. ["Arianism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism. ["Arianism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The opponents of Arianism rallied, but in the First Council of Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within the Empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes, among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of theFranks to Catholicism in 496. ["Arianism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]Constantine commissions Bibles
In 331, Constantine I commissioned
Eusebius to deliver fiftyChristian Bible s for theChurch of Constantinople .Athanasius ("Apol. Const. 4") recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles forConstans . Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and thatCodex Vaticanus ,Codex Sinaiticus andCodex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with thePeshitta , these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. [McDonald & Sanders, "The Canon Debate", pages 414-415, for the entire paragraph]First Council of Constantinople (381)
The council approved the current form of the
Nicene Creed as used in theEastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox churches, but, except when Greek is used, with two additionalLatin phrases ("Deum de Deo" and "Filioque") in the West. The form used by theArmenian Apostolic Church , which is part ofOriental Orthodoxy , has many more additions. [ [http://www.armenianchurchlibrary.com/files/creed.pdf Armenian Church Library: Nicene Creed] ] This fuller creed may have existed before the Council and probably originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople. ["Nicene Creed." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]The council also condemned
Apollinarism , ["Constantinople, First Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ. ["Apollinarius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save Rome. ["Constantinople, First Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]The council did not include Western bishops or Roman legates, but it was accepted as ecumenical in the West. ["Constantinople, First Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
First Council of Ephesus (431)
Theodosius II called the council to settle the Nestorian controversy. Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, opposed use of the term
Theotokos (Greek Η Θεοτόκος, "God-bearer"). ["Nestorius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] This term had long been used by orthodox writers, and it was gaining popularity along with devotion to Mary as Mother of God. ["Nestorius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] He reportedly taught that there were two separate persons in the incarnate Christ, though whether he actually taught this is disputed. ["Nestorius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]The council deposed Nestorius, repudiated
Nestorianism , proclaimed the Virgin Mary as theTheotokos .After quoting the
Nicene Creed in its original form, as at the First Council of Nicaea, without the alterations and additions made at the First Council of Constantinople, it declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with theHoly Ghost in Nicæa." [ [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3810.htm canon 7] ]Council of Chalcedon (451)
The council repudiated the Eutychian doctrine of
monophysitism , described and delineated the "Hypostatic Union " and two natures of Christ, human and divine; adopted theChalcedonian Creed . For those who accept it, it is the Fourth Ecumenical Council (calling the previous council, which was rejected by this council, the "Robber Synod " or "Robber Council ").Before the council
In November 448, a synod at Constantinople condemned Eutyches for unorthodoxy. ["Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] Eutyches, archimandrite (abbot) of a large Constinapolitan monastery, ["Eutyches" and "Archimandrite." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] taught that Christ was not
consubstantial with humanity. ["Monophysitism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]In 449, Theodosius II summoned a council at Ephesus, where Eutyches was exonerated and returned to his monastery. ["Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] This council was later overturned by the Council of Chalcedon and labeled "Latrocinium" (i.e., "Robber Council"). ["Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
econd Council of Constantinople (553)
This council condemned certain Nestorian writings and authors. This move was instigated by Emperor Justinian in an effort to conciliate the monophysite Christians, it was opposed in the West, and the Popes' acceptance of the council caused a major schism. ["Constantinople, Second Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
Three Chapters
Prior to the Second Council of Chalcedon was a prolonged controversy over the treatment of three subjects, all considered sympathetic to Nestorianism, the heresy that there are two separate persons in the Incarnation of Christ. ["Nestorianism" and "Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] Emperor Justinian condemned the Three Chapters, hoping to appeal to monophysite Christians with his anti-Nestorian zeal. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] Monophysites believe that in the Incarnate Christ there is one nature, not two. ["Monophysitism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] Eastern Patriarchs supported the Emperor, but in the West his interference was resented, and Pope Vigilius resisted his edict on the grounds that it opposed the Chalcedonian decrees. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] Justinian's policy was in fact an attack on Antiochene theology and the decisions of Chalcedon. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The pope assented and condemned the Three Chapters, but protests in the West caused him to retract his condemnation. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The emperor called the Second Council of Constantinople to resolve the controversy. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
Council proceedings
The council, attended mostly by Eastern bishops, condemned the Three Chapters and, indirectly, the Pope Vigilius. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] It also affirmed the East's intention to remain in communion with Rome. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
After the council
Vigilius declared his submission to the council, as did his successor, Pelagius I. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The council was not immediately recognized as ecumenical in the West, and Milan and Aquileia even broke off communion with Rome over this issue. ["Constantinople, Second Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The schism was not repaired until the late 6th century for Milan and the late 7th century for Aquileia. ["Constantinople, Second Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
Emperor Justinian's policy failed to reconcile the Monophysites. ["Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005]
Third Council of Constantinople
Third Council of Constantinople (680–681): repudiatedMonothelitism , affirmed that Christ had both human and divine wills.Quinisext Council
Quinisext Council (= Fifth and Sixth) or Council inTrullo (692) has not been accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Since it was mostly an administrative council for raising some local canons to ecumenical status, establishing principles of clerical discipline, addressing the Biblical canon, and establishing thePentarchy , without determining matters of doctrine, theEastern Orthodox Church does not consider it to be a full-fledged council in its own right, instead it is considered to be an extension of the fifth and sixth councils.econd Council of Nicaea
Second Council of Nicaea (787). In 753, Emperor Constantine V convened the Synod of Hieria, which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented him and that images of Mary and the saints were idols. ["Iconoclastic Controversy." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration oficon s and ended the first iconoclasm.ubsequent events
In the 9th century, Emperor Michael III struggled to appoint Photius as Patriarch of Constantinople and Pope Nicholas I struggled to keep Ignatius there. After Michael was murdered, Ignatius was reinstated as patriarch without challenge. ["Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] An ecumenical council in Constantinople, held while Ignatius was Patriarch, anathematized Photius. ["Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] With Ignatius' death in 877, Photius became patriarch, and in 879-80 an ecumenical council in Constantinople annulled the decision of the previous council. ["Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005] The West takes only the first as truly ecumenical and legitimate. The East takes only the second.
References
ee also
*
Synod of Ancyra in 341.
*Ecumenical council .
*Fourth Ecumenical Council to see the difference in numbering for this and the following council.
*Timeline of Christianity
*Byzantine Empire External links
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.html Schaff's "The Seven Ecumenical Councils]
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