Churches of Christ

Churches of Christ
This article is about a specific fellowship of Christian congregations with roots in the Restoration Movement. For Churches of Christ that do not agree with congregational support of church or para-church organizations, see the churches of Christ (non-institutional). For the historically related Christian churches and churches of Christ and Disciples of Christ or the less historically related United Church of Christ, see the respective articles. For other uses, see Church of Christ.
Churches of Christ
Classification Christian, Restoration Movement
Orientation New Testament, Restoration Movement
Polity Congregationalist
Separations Disciples of Christ, International Churches of Christ
Congregations 42,000
Members 5,062,074 worldwide, 1,639,495 in the United States

Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through common beliefs and practices. They seek to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone, and seek to be New Testament congregations as originally established by the authority of Christ. Historically, Churches of Christ in the United States were recognized as a distinct movement by the U.S. Religious Census of 1906. Prior to that they had been reported in the religious census as part of the movement that had its roots in the several independent movements that occurred through the leadership of people such as Thomas and Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and Barton W. Stone. They were active in American frontier settlements and cities. Those leaders had declared their independence from various denominations, seeking a fresh start to restore the New Testament church, and abandoning creeds. The names "Church of Christ," "Christian Church" and "Disciples of Christ" were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be biblical.

Branches developed within the church between those who used musical instruments in worship (now usually known as Christian churches and churches of Christ and Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)) and those who chose to sing a cappella because the use of instruments in church worship is not mentioned in the New Testament. It is this latter branch which is the subject of this article. Though officially recognized as distinct movements since 1906, the actual separation between the Churches of Christ and the Christian Churches had already been taking place gradually for decades. Yet, many within both traditions consider both to still be part of the same fellowship, although they have the different worship practices regarding church music.

Contents

Overview

“ Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century. Rather, the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost, A.D. 30. The strength of the appeal lies in the restoration of Christ's original church. ”
 

Modern Churches of Christ have their historical roots in the Restoration Movement, which was a converging of Christians across denominational lines in search of a return to a hypothesized original, "pre-denominational" Christianity.[1][2]:108 Participants in this movement sought to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone, rather than recognizing the traditional councils and denominational hierarchies that had come to define Christianity since the 1st century AD.[1][2]:82,104,105 Members of the Churches of Christ believe that Jesus founded only one church, that the current divisions between Christians are not God's will, and that the only basis for restoring Christian unity is the Bible.[1] They typically prefer to be known simply as "Christians", without any further religious or denominational identification.[3][4][5]:213 They see themselves as recreating the New Testament church established by Christ.[6][7][8]:106

Churches of Christ generally share these theological beliefs:[1]

In keeping with their history, Churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their sole rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical structure.[Col. 2:14] They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired[8]:103 and historically accurate, but they do not see its laws as binding under the New Covenant in Christ (unless they are repeated in the New Testament).[13]:388[14]:23–37[15]:65–67 They believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian (and thus a part of the universal Church of Christ) and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes.[1]

Demographics

These churches comprise about 5,062,074 members in over 40,000 individual congregations worldwide.[16] There are approximately 13,000 congregations in the United States.[17]:213 Overall U.S. membership was approximately 1.8 million in 2001 and 1.9 million in 2008.[18]:5 Estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0.8% to 1.5%.[18]:5[19]:12,16 Roughly 1,240 congregations, with 172,000 members, are predominantly African-American. 240 congregations with 10,000 members are Spanish-speaking.[17]:213 The average congregation size is approximately 100 members.[17]:213 In 2000, the Churches of Christ were the 12th largest religious group in the U.S. based on number of members, but the 4th largest in number of congregations.[20]

Within the U.S., membership in the Churches of Christ has grown by approximately 2% over the period from 1980 through 2007. Membership grew in 33 states and declined in 17. The current retention rate of young adults graduating from high school appears to be approximately 60%. The percentage of members attending services appears to be high relative to that of other Christian groups. Membership is concentrated, with 70% of the U.S. membership in 13 states. Churches of Christ had a presence in 2,429 counties, placing them fifth behind the United Methodist Church, Catholic Church, Southern Baptist Convention and Assemblies of God – but the average number of adherents per county was low at 677. The divorce rate is at 6.9%, much lower than national averages.[20]

Name

A man in his mid-60s turned a quarter of the way to the right. He's wearing a dark formal suit with a white shirt, high collar and white tie. His hair is white and loosely combed. His expression appears serious but not unfriendly.
Alexander Campbell

"Church of Christ" is the most common name used by this group. In keeping with their non-denominational focus, recently some congregations have identified themselves primarily as community churches and secondarily as Churches of Christ.[17]:219–220 A much earlier tradition is to identify a congregation as "the church" at a particular location, with no other description or qualifiers.[17]:220[21]:136–137 A primary motivation behind the name is the desire to use a scriptural or Biblical name – to identify the church using a name that is found in the New Testament.[11]:163,164[21][22][23]:7–8 One of the early slogans of the Restoration Movement, coined by Alexander Campbell, was to "[c]all Bible things by Bible names."[24]:688 There is also a desire to avoid names that associate the church with a particular man (other than Christ) or a particular doctrine or theological point of view (e.g., Lutheran, Wesleyan, Reformed).[4][22] This desire is based on a belief that Christ established only one church, and that the use of denominational names serves to foster division among Christians.[11]:23,24[21][25][26][27][28] One slogan used to describe the ideal of unity is taken from Thomas Campbell's Declaration and Address: "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."[24]:688

Several alternative descriptions have been recognized as scriptural, based on their use in the New Testament: "church of God", "church of the Lord", "churches of Christ", "church of the first-born", "church of the living God", "the house of God", and "the people of God".[21][29] While recognized as scriptural, terms such as Church of God and Christian Church are avoided to avoid confusion or identification with other groups that use those designations.[21][22][30] As a practical matter, use of a common term is seen as a way to help individual Christians find congregations with a similar approach to the scriptures.[21][31] There is also recognition that a scriptural name can be used in a "denominational" or "sectarian" way.[21]:83–94,134–136[22]:31[29] The exclusive use of the term "Church of Christ" has been criticized on this basis.[21]:83–94,134–136[22]:31[29] Many congregations and individuals do not capitalize the word "church" in the phrases "church of Christ" and "churches of Christ".[32]:382[33] This is based on the understanding that the term "church of Christ" is used in the New Testament as a descriptive phrase, indicating that the church belongs to Christ, rather than as a proper name.[21]:91

Church organization

Congregational autonomy and leadership

Church government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.[5]:214[8]:103[9]:238[10]:124[34] Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see Sponsoring church (Churches of Christ)).[1][10]:124[35][36] Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.[1][8]:106

Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons.[1][10]:124[11]:47,54–55 Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church.[37]:531 Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries.[37]:531 Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership.[37]:531 Elders and deacons are appointed by the congregation based on the qualifications found in 1 Timothy 3 and Titus 1.[11]:53,48–52[38][39]:323,335 Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform "governance" functions.[40]:298 In lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregation's men in general.[41]

While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than "located Preachers", during the 20th century a long-term, formally-trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ.[37]:532 Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders.[40]:298 While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created "significant de facto ministerial authority" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the "ultimate locus of authority in the congregation".[37]:531

Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers.[42] No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as "clergy".[8]:106[14]:112–113 Many ministers have undergraduate or graduate education in religion, or specific training in preaching through a non-college school of preaching.[17]:215[37]:531[43]:607[44]:672,673 Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between "clergy" and "laity" and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church.[45]:38–40

Variations within Churches of Christ

While there is an identifiable mainstream within the Churches of Christ, there are also significant variations within the fellowship.[5]:212[17]:213[46]:31,32[47]:4[48]:1,2 The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures" such as church organization, the form of worship, and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of "methodological" disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church".[5]:212

Three quarters of the congregations and 87% of the membership are described by the The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement as "mainstream", sharing a consensus on practice and theology.[17]:213 The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories, the largest of which is the churches of Christ (non-institutional). Approximately 2,055 congregations fall in this category.[49][17]:213 The second group does not use separate Bible classes, and consists of approximately 1,100 congregations. A third group does not use multiple communion cups (approximately 550 congregations; this category overlaps somewhat with those congregations that do not use separate Bible classes for children). The fourth group "emphasize[s] mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose[s] one person doing most of the preaching". This group includes roughly 130 congregations.[49][17]:213 These groups generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average.[17]:213

Beliefs

Studio photograph of a very old Bible standing vertically on a wooden surface with the spine turned three quarters of the way towards the viewer. The cover is black leather and is cracked and worn.
An American family Bible dating to 1859 A.D.
“ If it's not in the Bible, then these folks aren't going to do it. ”
 
— Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church[9]:240

Churches of Christ seek to practice the principle of the Bible being the only source to find doctrine (also known as "sola scriptura").[10]:123[50] The Bible is generally regarded as inspired and inerrant.[10]:123 Churches of Christ generally see the Bible as historically accurate and literal, unless scriptural context obviously indicates otherwise. Regarding church practices, worship, and doctrine, there is great liberty from congregation to congregation in interpreting what is biblically permissible, as congregations are not controlled by a denominational hierarchy.[51] Their approach to the Bible is driven by the "assumption that the Bible is sufficiently plain and simple to render its message obvious to any sincere believer".[5]:212 Related to this is an assumption that the Bible provides an understandable "blueprint" or "constitution" for the church.[5]:213

Historically, three hermeneutic approaches have been used among Churches of Christ.[13]:387[52]

  • Analysis of commands, examples, and necessary inferences;
  • Dispensational analysis distinguishing between Patriarchal, Mosaic and Christian dispensations; and
  • Grammatico-historical analysis.

The relative importance given to each of these three strategies has varied over time and between different contexts.[52] The general impression in the current Churches of Christ is that the group's hermeneutics are entirely based on the command, example, inference approach.[52] In practice, interpretation has been deductive, and heavily influenced by the group's central commitment to ecclesiology and soteriology.[52] Inductive reasoning has been used as well, as when all of the conversion accounts from the book of Acts are collated and analyzed to determine the steps necessary for salvation.[52] One student of the movement summarized the traditional approach this way: "In most of their theologizing, however, my impression is that spokespersons in the Churches of Christ reason from Scripture in a deductive manner, arguing from one premise or hypothesis to another so as to arrive at a conclusion. In this regard the approach is much like that of science which, in practice moves deductively from one hypothesis to another, rather than in a Baconian inductive manner."[52] In recent years, changes in the degree of emphasis placed on ecclesiology and soteriology has spurred a reexamination of the traditional hermeneutics among some associated with the Churches of Christ.[52]

A debate arose during the 1980s over the use of the command, example, necessary inference model for identifying the "essentials" of the New Testament faith. Some argued that it fostered legalism, and advocated instead a hermeneutic based on the character of God, Christ and the Holy Spirit. Traditionalists urged the rejection of this "new hermeneutic".[53] Use of this tripartite formula has declined as congregations have shifted to an increased "focus on 'spiritual' issues like discipleship, servanthood, family and praise".[13]:388 Relatively greater emphasis has been given to Old Testament studies in congregational Bible classes and at affiliated colleges in recent decades. While it is still not seen as authoritative for Christian worship, church organization, or regulating the Christian's life, some have argued that it is theologically authoritative.[13]:388

Many scholars associated with the Churches of Christ embrace the methods of modern Biblical criticism but not the associated anti-supernaturalistic views. More generally, the classical grammatico-historical method is prevalent, which provides a basis for some openness to alternative approaches to understanding the scriptures.[13]:389

Doctrine of Salvation (Soteriology)

Churches of Christ are strongly anti-Calvinist in their understanding of salvation and generally present conversion as "obedience to the proclaimed facts of the gospel rather than as the result of an emotional, Spirit-initiated conversion".[17]:215 Churches of Christ hold the view that humans of accountable age are lost because of their sins.[10]:124 These lost souls can be redeemed because Jesus Christ, the Son of God, offered Himself as the atoning sacrifice.[10]:124 Children too young to understand right from wrong, and make a conscious choice between the two, are believed to be innocent of sin.[8]:107[10]:124 The age when this occurs is generally believed to be around 13, although it varies based on maturity.[8]:107

Churches of Christ generally teach that the process of salvation involves the following steps:[1]

  1. One must be properly taught, and hear (Romans 10:17, Matthew 7:24);
  2. One must believe or have faith (Hebrews 11:6, Mark 16:15–16);
  3. One must repent, which means turning from one's former lifestyle and choosing God's ways (Acts 2:38, Acts 17:30, Luke 13:3);
  4. One must confess belief that Jesus is the son of God (Matthew 10:32–33; Acts 8:36–37);
  5. One must be baptized for the remission of sins (Acts 2:38; 1Peter 3:20–21; Romans 6:3–5; Mark 16:16; Acts 22:16); and
  6. One must remain faithful unto death (Revelation 2:10).

Beginning in the 1960s, many preachers began placing more emphasis on the role of grace in salvation, instead of focusing exclusively on implementing all of the New Testament commands and examples.[47]:152,153 This was not an entirely new approach, as others had actively "affirmed a theology of free and unmerited grace", but it did represent a change of emphasis with grace becoming "a theme that would increasingly define this tradition".[47]:153

Baptism

See also: Baptism in early Christianity
A baptism in a river. Two men are standing hip-deep in blue water with trees in the background.
Baptism by immersion

Baptism has been recognized as an important rite throughout the history of the Christian Church,[54]:11 but Christian groups differ over the manner in which baptism is administered,[54]:11 the meaning and significance of baptism,[54]:11 its role in salvation,[54]:12 and who is a candidate for baptism.[54]:12

Baptism in Churches of Christ is performed only by bodily immersion,[8]:107[10]:124 based on the Koine Greek verb βαπτίζω (baptizō) which is understood to mean to dip, immerse, submerge or plunge.[1][11]:313–314[14]:45–46[54]:139[55]:22 Immersion is seen as more closely conforming to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus than other modes of baptism.[1][11]:314–316[54]:140 Churches of Christ argue that historically immersion was the mode used in the first century, and that pouring and sprinkling later emerged as secondary modes when immersion was not possible.[54]:140 Over time these secondary modes came to replace immersion.[54]:140 Only those mentally capable of belief and repentance are baptized (i.e., infant baptism is not practiced because the New Testament has no precedent for it).[1][10]:124[11]:318–319[39]:195

Churches of Christ have historically had the most conservative position on baptism among the various branches of the Restoration Movement, understanding baptism by immersion to be a necessary part of conversion.[56]:61 The most significant disagreements concerned the extent to which a correct understanding of the role of baptism is necessary for its validity.[56]:61 David Lipscomb consistently argued that if a believer was baptized out of a desire to obey God, the baptism was valid, even if the individual did not fully understand the role baptism plays in salvation.[56]:61 Austin McGary argued strongly that to be valid, the convert must also understand that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins.[56]:62 McGary's view became the prevailing one in the early 20th century, but the approach advocated by Lipscomb never totally disappeared.[56]:62 More recently, the rise of the International Churches of Christ (who required the re-baptism of anyone joining their movement) has caused some to reexamine the issue.[56]:66

Churches of Christ consistently teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God, and that God "by the merits of Christ's blood, cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God's kingdom. Baptism is not a human work; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do."[56]:66 Baptism is a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work; it "is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God".[57]:112 While Churches of Christ do not describe baptism as a "sacrament", their view of it can legitimately be described as "sacramental".[55]:186[56]:66 They see the power of baptism coming from God, who chose to use baptism as a vehicle, rather than from the water or the act itself,[55]:186 and understand baptism to be an integral part of the conversion process, rather than as only a symbol of conversion.[55]:184 A recent trend is to emphasize the transformational aspect of baptism: instead of describing it as nothing more than a legal requirement or sign of something that happened in the past, it is seen as "the event that places the believer 'into Christ' where God does the ongoing work of transformation".[56]:66 There is a minority that downplays the importance of baptism in order to avoid sectarianism, but the broader trend is to "reexamine the richness of the biblical teaching of baptism and to reinforce its central and essential place in Christianity".[56]:66

Because of the belief that baptism is a necessary part of salvation, some Baptists hold that the Churches of Christ endorse the doctrine of baptismal regeneration.[58] Members of the Churches of Christ reject this, arguing that since faith and repentance are necessary, and that the cleansing of sins is by the blood of Christ through the grace of God, baptism is not an inherently redeeming ritual.[54]:133[58][59]:630,631 One author describes the relationship between faith and baptism this way, "Faith is the reason why a person is a child of God; baptism is the time at which one is incorporated into Christ and so becomes a child of God" (italics are in the source).[39]:170 Baptism is understood as a confessional expression of faith and repentance,[39]:179–182 rather than a "work" that earns salvation.[39]:170

A cappella worship

The Churches of Christ generally combine the lack of any historical evidence that the early church used musical instruments in worship[11]:237–238[22]:47[60]:415 and the belief that there is no scriptural support for using instruments in the church's worship service[1][11]:244–246 to decide that instruments should not be used today in worship. Churches of Christ have historically practiced a cappella music in worship services.[1][9]:240[10]:124

Scriptural backing for this practice given by members includes:

  • Matt. 26:30: "And when they had sung a hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives."[11]:236
  • Rom. 15:9: "Therefore I will praise thee among the Gentiles, and sing to thy name";[11]:236
  • Eph. 5:18,19: "... be filled with the Spirit, addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody to the Lord with all your heart,"[1][11]:236
  • 1 Cor. 14:15: "I will sing with the Spirit, and I will sing with the understanding also."[11]:236
  • Col. 3:16: "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly; in all wisdom teaching and admonishing one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts unto God."[11]:237 amos 5:23...I will not hear the melody of thy viols. amos 6:5 who invent for themselves instruments like david.
  • Heb. 2:12: "I will declare thy name unto my brethren, in the midst of the church will I sing praise unto thee."[11]:237

There are congregations that permit hand-clapping and a few that use musical instruments in worship.[9]:240[60]:417[61] Some of the latter describe themselves as a "Church of Christ (Instrumental)".[48]:667

Other theological tendencies

Post-tribulation Premillennialism places the millennium after the tribulation and between the second coming of Christ and the last judgment; Pre-tribulational Premillennialism places the second coming of Christ for the church before the tribulation, the second coming of Christ with the church after the tribulation, with the millennium following and the last judgment coming at the end of the millennium; Postmillennialism places the second coming of Christ and the last judgment together at the end of the millennium; Amillennialism has an extended symbolic millennium that ends with the second coming of Christ and the last judgment.
Churches of Christ are generally amillennial.
“ Churches of Christ avoid the term "theology", preferring instead the term "doctrine": theology is what humans say about the Bible; doctrine is simply what the Bible says. ”
 
— Encyclopedia of Religion in the South[5]:213

Many leaders argue that the Churches of Christ only follow the Bible and have no "theology".[62]:737 Christian theology as classically understood – the systematic development of the classical doctrinal topics – is relatively recent and rare among this movement.[62]:737 Because Churches of Christ reject all formalized creeds on the basis that they add to or detract from Scripture, they generally reject most conceptual doctrinal positions out of hand.[63] Churches of Christ do tend to elaborate certain "driving motifs".[62]:737 These are scripture (hermeneutics), the church (ecclesiology) and the "plan of salvation" (soteriology).[62]:737 The importance of theology, understood as teaching or "doctrine", has been defended on the basis that an understanding of doctrine is necessary to respond intelligently to questions from others, to promote spiritual health, and to draw the believer closer to God.[57]:10–11

In 2011 one of the institutions administered by members of the Churches of Christ changed its name from Harding Graduate School of Religion to Harding School of Theology.[64]

Eschatology

Regarding eschatology (a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of humankind), Churches of Christ are generally amillennial, their originally prevalent postmillennialism (evident in Alexander Campbell's Millennial Harbinger) having dissipated around the era of the First World War. Before then, many leaders were "moderate historical premillennialists" who did not advocate specific historical interpretations. Churches of Christ have moved away from premillennialism as dispensational millennialism has come more to fore in Protestant evangelical circles.[17]:219[65] Amillennialism and postmillennialism are the prevailing views today.[10]:125

Premillennialism was a focus of controversy during the first half of the 20th century.[17]:219 One of the most influential advocates for that point of view was Robert Henry Boll,[66]:96–97[67]:306 whose eschatological views came to be most singularly opposed by Foy E. Wallace Jr.[68] By the end of the 20th century, however, the divisions caused by the debate over premillenialism were diminishing, and in the 2000 edition of the directory Churches of Christ in the United States, published by Mac Lynn, congregations holding premillennial views were no longer listed separately.[66]:97[69]

Work of the Holy Spirit

During the late 19th century, the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture.[70] This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell, who was "greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day".[70] He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation but understood the Spirit to do this "in the same way any person moves another—by persuasion with words and ideas". This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone, who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian.[70] Since the early 20th century, many among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this "word-only" theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit.[71] As one scholar of the movement puts it, "[f]or better or worse, those who champion the so-called word-only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ. Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body, apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock."[70]

History in America

See also: Restoration Movement
Photograph of the interior of an old log church with a rough hewn timber supporting column near the center of the image. The column supports a timber beam. Other beams are visible supporting a balcony that surrounds the room on three sides. The photograph is facing towards a communion table at the front of the church, and is taken from the left side of the room beneath the balcony. Plane wooden pews are visible to the left and on the other side of the room. The floor is wooden. A portrait of Thomas Campbell is visible to the left, on the front wall of the room.
Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky

Early Restoration Movement history

See also: Christianity in the 19th century

The Restoration Movement originated with the convergence of several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity.[2]:101[21]:27 Two were of particular importance to the development of the movement.[2]:101–106[21]:27 The first, led by Barton W. Stone began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and called themselves simply "Christians". The second began in western Pennsylvania and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell; they used the name "Disciples of Christ". Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided.[2]:101–106[21]:27–32

A middle-aged, studious looking man with white hair and old-fashioned glasses pushed up over his head. He is looking almost directly towards the viewer, with his shoulders turned slightly towards the left. He is wearing a dark coat and a white shirt with a broadly spread collar.
Thomas Campbell

The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.[2]:106–108 Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.[2]:108 Both saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom, and both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.[2]:108 The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.[47]:8,9 While emphasizing that the Bible is the only source to seek doctrine, an acceptance of Christians with diverse opinions was the norm in the quest for truth. "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, love" was an oft-quoted slogan of the period.[72] The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832.[21]:28[73]:212[74]:xxi[75]:xxxvii

The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening.[76]:368 While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[76]:368

Christian churches and churches of Christ separation

“ Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved ”
 
A middle-aged man with a beard and old-fashioned wire-framed glasses. His head and shoulders are visible, and he is turned three-quarters of the way towards the right. He is wearing a dark suit and waistcoat with a white shirt.
David Lipscomb

In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct groups for the first time.[78]:251 This was the recognition of a division that had been growing for years under the influence of conservatives such as Daniel Sommer, with reports of the division having been published as early as 1883.[78]:252 The most visible distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of organs in some churches. More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered.[78]:242–247

In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that favored cooperative mission work adopted a new "provisional design" for their work together, becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[32]:495 Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization went their own way as the Christian churches and churches of Christ, completing a separation that had begun decades before.[32]:407–409 The independent Christian churches and churches of Christ have both organizational and hermeneutic differences with the churches of Christ discussed in this article.[5]:186 For example, they have a loosely organized convention and view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively,[5]:186 but they are more closely related to the churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ).[5]:186 Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[5]:210[32]:383

Race relations

“ To object to any child of God participating in the service on account of his race, social or civil state, his color or race, is to object to Jesus Christ and to cast him from our association. It is a fearful thing to do. I have never attended a church that negroes did not attend. ”
 
An oval portrait of a friendly looking man with a high forehead looking towards the viewer. His head and shoulders are visible, and his shoulders are turned slightly to the left. His hair is loosely combed, and he is wearing an old-fashioned coat and waistcoat. His shirt is white, with a loose collar and a white stock or cravat.
Barton W. Stone

Early Restoration Movement leaders varied in their views of slavery, reflecting the range of positions common in the antebellum U.S.[80]:619 Barton W. Stone was a strong opponent of slavery, arguing that there was no Biblical justification for slavery of the form current in the United States and calling for immediate emancipation.[80]:619 Alexander Campbell represented a more "Jeffersonian" opposition to slavery, writing of it more as a political problem than a religious or moral one.[80]:619 Having seen Methodists and Baptists divide over the issue of slavery, Campbell argued that scripture regulated slavery rather than prohibited it, and that abolition should not be allowed to become an issue over which Christians broke fellowship with each other.[80]:619 As with the country as a whole, the assumption of white racial superiority was almost universal among those on all sides of the issue, and it was common for congregations to have separate seating for black members.[80]:619

After the American Civil War, black Christians who had been worshiping in mixed-race Restoration Movement congregations formed their own congregations.[80]:619 White members of Restoration Movement congregations shared many of the racial prejudices of the times.[80]:620 Among the churches of Christ, Marshall Keeble became a prominent African-American evangelist. He estimated that by January 1919 he had "traveled 23,052 miles, preached 1,161 sermons, and baptized 457 converts".[80]:620

During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s the churches of Christ struggled with changing racial attitudes.[80]:621 Some leaders, such as Foy E. Wallace, railed against racial integration.[81] Schools and colleges associated with the movement were at the center of the debate.[80]:621 Abilene Christian College first admitted black undergraduate students in 1962 (graduate students had been admitted in 1961).[80]:621 Desegregation of other campuses followed.[80]:621[82]

Efforts to address racism continued through the following decades.[80]:622 A national meeting of prominent leaders from the churches of Christ was held in June 1968.[80]:622 Thirty-two participants signed a set of proposals intended to address discrimination in local congregations, church affiliated activities and the lives of individual Christians.[80]:622 An important symbolic step was taken in 1999 when the president of Abilene Christian University "confessed the sin of racism in the school's past segregationist policies" and asked black Christians for forgiveness during a lectureship at Southwestern Christian College, a historically black school affiliated with the churches of Christ.[80]:622[83]:695

Institutional controversy

After World War II, Churches of Christ began sending ministers and humanitarian relief to war-torn Europe and Asia. A doctrinal conflict ensued about how this work was to be done. Eventually, the funding and control of outreach programs in the United States such as homes for orphans and large-scale radio and television programs became part of the controversy. This "Institutional Controversy" resulted in the largest division among Churches of Christ in the 20th century.[84]

Separation of the International Churches of Christ

The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a "discipling" movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s.[85]:418 This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas.[85]:418

In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement). Centered on the University of Florida, the program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners. Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members. Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in-depth involvement of each member in one another's lives", and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism.[86]

The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ. One of Lucas' converts, Kip McKean, moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with "would-be disciples" in the Lexington Church of Christ.[85]:418 He asked them to "redefine their commitment to Christ," and introduced the use of discipling partners. The congregation grew rapidly, and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ.[85]:418 In the early 1980s, the focus of the movement moved to Boston, Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend.[85]:418[86]:133,134 With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston movement".[85]:418[86]:133,134 A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of the International Churches of Christ.[85]:418 This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads/Boston Movement and "mainline" Churches of Christ.[32]:442[85]:418,419 Other names that have been used for this movement include the "Crossroads movement," "Multiplying Ministries," the "Discipling Movement" and the "Boston Church of Christ".[86]:133

In November 2002, the McKeans announced their resignations from their roles as World Mission Evangelist, Women's Ministry Leader and Leader of the World Sector Leaders.[87] A period of increased sovereignty among local churches followed, which McKean calls a "reactionary 'new vision' of autonomous congregations, consensus leadership with no lead evangelists, the elimination of structured outreach (Bible Talks) and the elimination of discipleship partners". Many in leadership positions issued public apologies for their participation in authoritative abuses, and some resigned or were asked to leave. By 2004, Boston, Atlanta, and New York City had lost over 30% of their members, and some entire congregations severed their ties with the ICOC.[88] Local fellowships varied in their reactions to the power vacuum. ICOC Chronicler Chris Lee asserts that three factions emerged, still exist today: a conservative group which seeks a return to the former, authoritarian structure; a moderate group that, "while they recognize that reform is necessary, feel that the current rate of reform is sufficient"; and a reformist group which advocates radical restructuring.[89]

In the wake of these changes, some efforts are being made at reconciliation between the International Churches of Christ and the mainstream Churches of Christ. In March 2004, Abilene Christian University held the "Faithful Conversations" dialog between members of the Churches of Christ and International Churches of Christ. Those involved were able to apologize and initiate an environment conducive to building bridges. A few leaders of the Churches of Christ apologized for use of the word "cult" in reference to the International Churches of Christ. The International Churches of Christ leaders apologized for alienating the Churches of Christ and implying they were not Christians. Despite improvements in relations, there are still fundamental differences within the fellowship. Early 2005 saw a second set of dialogs with greater promise for both sides helping one another. Harding University is contemplating a distance learning program geared toward those ministers who were trained in the International Churches of Christ.[90]

Restoration Movement timeline

Restoration Movement Timelinev · d · e
↓Cane Ridge Revival
↓First National Convention
↓United Christian Missionary Society
↓The American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS)
↓First use of organs
↓Christian Church (DoC) Restructured
 
 
 
 
 
United movement, using various names
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Independent and Co-operative)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
/ Disciples of Christ
 
 
Churches of Christ
 
 
 
 
(Campbell)
 
 
/ Churches of Christ )
 
 
 
 
 
 
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1800
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1820
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1840
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1860
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1880
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1900
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1920
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1940
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1960
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1980
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2000

Churches of Christ outside the United States

Most members of the Churches of Christ live outside the United States. There are more than 1,000,000 members of the Churches of Christ in Africa, approximately 1,000,000 in India, and 50,000 in Central and South America. Total worldwide membership is over 3,000,000, with approximately 1,300,000 in the U.S.[17]:212

Africa

There are believed to be 1,000,000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa.[17]:212 The total number of congregations is approximately 14,000.[91]:7 The most significant concentrations are in "Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Africa and Kenya".[91]:7

Asia

India has historically been a target for missionary efforts; estimates are that there are 2,000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India,[92]:37,38 with a membership of approximately 1,000,000.[17]:212 More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines.[92]:38 Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant.[92]:38

Australia & New Zealand

See also: Churches of Christ in Australia

Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia. Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations.[93]:47 While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing "summary statements of belief" as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups.[93]:50 The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools. Ultimately, all three found general acceptance in the movement.[93]:51 Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States.[93]:53 There have been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the Christian churches and churches of Christ instead.[93]:53 Others have sought support from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference" congregations had "departed from the restoration ideal".[93]:53

Canada

A relatively small proportion of total membership come from Canada. A growing portion of the Canadian demographic is made up of immigrant members of the church. This is partly the result of Canadian demographics as a whole, and partly due to decreased interest amongst late generation Canadians.[94]

Great Britain

Churches of Christ in Europe arose separately from the American Restoration Movement and during the 1840s onwards various movements came into fellowship. A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ.[95]:369 James Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named the British Millennial Harbinger in 1837.[95]:369 In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh.[95]:369 Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600.[95]:369 The name "Churches of Christ" was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870.[95]:369 Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited the Britain for several months in 1847, and "presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester".[95]:369 At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300.[95]:369 Annual meetings were held after 1847.[95]:369

The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war.[95]:371 A conference for "Old Paths" congregations was first held in 1924.[95]:371 The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all-sufficient rule of faith and practice".[95]:371 Two "Old Paths" congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931; an additional two withdrew in 1934, and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947.[95]:371

Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War.[95]:372[96]:312 The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980.[95]:372[96]:312 Most Association congregations (approximately 40) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981.[95]:372[96]:312 In the same year, twenty-four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ.[95]:372 The Fellowship developed ties with the Christian churches and churches of Christ during the 1980s.[95]:372[96]:312

The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional" emphasis with an ideal of "Five Fold Leadership". Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine. A history of the Association of Churches of Christ, Let Sects and Parties Fall, was written by David M Thompson.[97]

See also

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References

  • Allen, Crawford Leonard (1988). Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of Churches of Christ. Abilene, Texas: ACU Press. pp. 161. ISBN 0891120084. 
  • Brownlow, Leroy (1973). Why I Am a Member of the Church of Christ. Fort Worth, Texas: L. Brownlow Publishing Co.. pp. 192. OCLC 213866131. 
  • Cartwright, Colbert S. (1987). People of the Chalice. St, Louis, Missouri: Chalice Press. ISBN 978-0-827229-38-9. 
  • Ferguson, Everett (1996). The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 443. ISBN 0802841899, 9780802841896. 
  • Foster, Douglas Allen; Dunnavant, Anthony L. (2004). The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 854. ISBN 0802838987, 9780802838988. 
  • Garrett, Leroy (1983). The Stone-Campbell Movement. Joplin: College Press. ISBN 0-89900-059-2. 
  • Garrett, Leroy (2002). The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement. College Press. pp. 573. ISBN 0899009093, 9780899009094. 
  • Hawley, Monroe E. (1976). Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity. Abilene, Texas: Quality Publications. ISBN 0-89137-513-9, 0-89137-513-9. 
  • Holloway, Gary; Foster, Douglas A. (2001). Renewing God's People. Abilene, TX: ACU Press. pp. 151. ISBN 0-89-112-010-6. 
  • Hughes, Richard T (1996). Reviving the Ancient Faith: The Story of Churches of Christ in America. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. pp. 448. ISBN 0802840868. 
  • Hughes, Richard; Hatch, Nathan O.; Harrell, David Edwin Jr. (2000). American Origins of the Churches of Christ. Abilene, TX: ACU Press. pp. 118. ISBN 0-89112-0092. 
  • McMillon, Lynn A. (1983). Restoration Roots. Dallas: Gospel Teachers Publications, Inc.. pp. 97. OCLC 10950221. 
  • Murch, James DeForest (1962). Christians Only, A history of the Restoration Movement. Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company. OCLC 3047672. 
  • Shelly, Rubel (1984). I Just Want to Be a Christian. Nashville, Tennessee: 20th Century Christian. ISBN 0-89098-021-7. 

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Batsell Barrett Baxter, Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in? Available on-line in an Archived June 16, 2006 at the Wayback Machine, and here, here and here
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, "Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of the Churches of Christ," Abilene Christian University Press, 1988, ISBN 0-89112-006-8
  3. ^ "The church of Jesus Christ is non-denominational. It is neither Catholic, Jewish nor Protestant. It was not founded in 'protest' of any institution, and it is not the product of the 'Restoration' or 'Reformation.' It is the product of the seed of the kingdom (Luke 8:11ff) grown in the hearts of men." V. E. Howard, What Is the Church of Christ? 4th Edition (Revised), 1971, page 29
  4. ^ a b Batsell Barrett Baxter and Carroll Ellis, Neither Catholic, Protestant nor Jew, tract, Church of Christ (1960) ASIN: B00073CQPM. According to Richard Thomas Hughes in Reviving the Ancient Faith: The Story of Churches of Christ in America, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996 (ISBN 0-8028-4086-8, 9780802840868), this is "arguably the most widely distributed tract ever published by the Churches of Christ or anyone associated with that tradition."
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, Encyclopedia of Religion in the South,Mercer University Press, 2005, (ISBN 0-86554-758-0, 9780865547582) 854 pages
  6. ^ "On the cornerstone of the Southside Church of Christ in Springfield, Missouri, is this inscription: 'Church of Christ, Founded in Jerusalem, A.D. 33. This building erected in 1953.' This is not an unusual claim; for similar wording can be found on buildings of churches of Christ in many parts of the United States. The Christians who use such cornerstones reason that the church of Jesus Christ began on Pentecost, A.D. 33. Therefore, to be true to the New Testament, the twentieth-century church must trace its origins to the first century." Page 1, Robert W. Hooper, A Distinct People: A History of the Churches of Christ in the 20th Century, Simon and Schuster, 1993, ISBN 1-878990-26-8, 9781878990266, 391 pages
  7. ^ "Traditional Churches of Christ have pursued the restorationist vision with extraordinary zeal. Indeed, the cornerstones of many Church of Christ buildings read 'Founded, A.D. 33.' " page 212, Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, Encyclopedia of Religion in the South,Mercer University Press, 2005
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Stuart M. Matlins, Arthur J. Magida, J. Magida, How to Be a Perfect Stranger: A Guide to Etiquette in Other People's Religious Ceremonies, Wood Lake Publishing Inc., 1999, ISBN 1-896836-28-3, 9781896836287, 426 pages, Chapter 6 – Churches of Christ
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church, Brazos Press, 2003, ISBN 1-58743-036-3
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p V. E. Howard, What Is the Church of Christ? 4th Edition (Revised) Central Printers & Publishers, West Monroe, Louisiana, 1971
  12. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Lord's Supper, The
  13. ^ a b c d e Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Hermeneutics
  14. ^ a b c Edward C. Wharton, The Church of Christ: The Distinctive Nature of the New Testament Church, Gospel Advocate Co., 1997, ISBN 0-89225-464-5
  15. ^ David Pharr, The Beginning of our Confidence: Seven Weeks of Daily Lessons for New Christians, 21st Century Christian, 2000, 80 pages, ISBN 0-89098-374-7
  16. ^ "Church numbers listed by country". ChurchZip. http://churchzip.com/statisticalsummary.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-11.  This is a live country-by-country tabulation, based on the enumeration of specific individual church locations and leaders. While it is known to under-represent certain developing countries, it is the largest such enumeration, and improves significantly on earlier broad-based estimates having no supporting detail.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Churches of Christ
  18. ^ a b Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar, American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS 2008), Trinity College,March 2009
  19. ^ "The Religious Composition of the United States," U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Chapter 1, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Pew Research Center, February 2008
  20. ^ a b Flavil Yeakley, Good News and Bad News: A Realistic Assessment of Churches of Christ in the United States: 2008, available from the Freed-Hardeman University bookstore here; an mp3 of the author presenting some of the results at the 2009 East Tennessee School of Preaching and Ministry lectureship on March 4, 2009 is available here; a PowerPoint Presentation from the 2008 CMU conference using some of the survey results posted on the Campus Ministry United website here
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976, ISBN 0-89137-512-0 (paper), ISBN 0-89137-513-9 (cloth)
  22. ^ a b c d e f Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984, ISBN 0-89098-021-7
  23. ^ J. W. Shepherd, The Church, the Falling Away, and the Restoration, Gospel Advocate Company, Nashville, Tennessee, 1929 (reprinted in 1973)
  24. ^ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Slogans
  25. ^ Thomas Campbell, Declaration and Address, 1809, available on-line here
  26. ^ O. E. Shields, "The Church of Christ," The Word and Work, VOL. XXXIX, No. 9, September 1945.
  27. ^ M. C. Kurfees, "Bible Things by Bible Names – The General and Local Senses of the Term 'Church'", Gospel Advocate (October 14, 1920):1104–1105, as reprinted in Appendix II: Restoration Documents of I Just Want to Be a Christian, Rubel Shelly (1984)
  28. ^ J. C. McQuiddy, "The New Testament Church", Gospel Advocate (November 11, 1920):1097–1098, as reprinted in Appendix II: Restoration Documents of I Just Want to Be a Christian, Rubel Shelly (1984)
  29. ^ a b c M. C. Kurfees, "Bible Things by Bible Names – Different Designations of the Church Further Considered", Gospel Advocate (September 30, 1920):958–959, as reprinted in Appendix II: Restoration Documents of I Just Want to Be a Christian, Rubel Shelly (1984)
  30. ^ Within the Restoration Movement, congregations that do not use musical instruments in worship use the name "Church of Christ" almost exclusively; congregations that do use musical instruments use the term "Christian Church" most often. Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, 1976, page 89.
  31. ^ As, e.g., for listings in the yellow pages.
  32. ^ a b c d e Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
  33. ^ Examples of this usage include the Gospel Advocate website ("Serving the church of Christ since 1855" – accessed October 26, 2008); the Lipscomb University website ("Classes in every area are taught in a faith-informed approach by highly qualified faculty who represent the range of perspectives that exist among churches of Christ." – accessed October 26, 2008); the Freed-Hardeman University website ("Freed-Hardeman University is a private institution, associated with churches of Christ, dedicated to moral and spiritual values, academic excellence, and service in a friendly, supportive environment... The university is governed by a self-perpetuating board of trustees who are members of churches of Christ and who hold the institution in trust for its founders, alumni, and supporters." – accessed October 26, 2008); Batsell Barrett Baxter, Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in? (Available on-line here, here, here, here and here); Batsell Barrett Baxter and Carroll Ellis, Neither Catholic, Protestant nor Jew, tract, Church of Christ (1960); Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976; Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984; and V. E. Howard, What Is the Church of Christ? 4th Edition (Revised), 1971; Website of the Frisco church of Christ ("Welcome to the Home page for the Frisco church of Christ in Frisco, Texas." – accessed October 27, 2008); website of the church of Christ Internet Ministries ("The purpose of this Web Site is to unite the churches of Christ in one accord." – accessed October 27, 2008) Archived May 2, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ "Churches of Christ from the beginning have maintained no formal organization structures larger than the local congregations and no official journals or vehicles declaring sanctioned positions. Consensus views do, however, often emerge through the influence of opinion leaders who express themselves in journals, at lectureships, or at area preacher meetings and other gatherings" page 213, Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages
  35. ^ "Churches of Christ adhere to a strict congregationalism that cooperates in various projects overseen by one congregation or organized as parachurch enterprises, but many congregations hold themselves apart from such cooperative projects." Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, page 206, entry on Church, Doctrine of the
  36. ^ "It is nothing less than phenomenal that the Churches of Christ get so much done without any centralized planning or structure. Everything is ad hoc. Most programs emerge from the inspiration and commitment of a single congregation or even a single person. Worthwhile projects survive and prosper by the voluntary cooperation of other individuals and congregations." Page 449, Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
  37. ^ a b c d e f Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Ministry
  38. ^ Everett Ferguson, "Authority and Tenure of Elders", Restoration Quarterly, Vol. 18 No. 3 (1975): 142–150
  39. ^ a b c d e Everett Ferguson, The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996, ISBN 0-8028-4189-9, 9780802841896, 443 pages
  40. ^ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Elders, Eldership
  41. ^ "Where elderships do not exist, most congregations function through a 'business meeting' system that may include any member of the congregation or, in other cases, the men of the church." Page 531, Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Ministry
  42. ^ Roberts, Price (1979). Studies for New Converts. Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company. pp. 53–56. 
  43. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Preaching
  44. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Schools of Preaching
  45. ^ R. B. Sweet, Now That I'm a Christian, Sweet Publishing, 1948 (revised 2003), ISBN 0-8344-0129-0
  46. ^ Jeffery S. Stevenson, All People, All Times Rethinking Biblical Authority in Churches of Christ, Xulon Press, 2009, ISBN 1607915391, 9781607915393
  47. ^ a b c d Richard Thomas Hughes and R. L. Roberts, The Churches of Christ, 2nd Edition, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 0-313-23312-8, 9780313233128, 345 pages
  48. ^ a b Ralph K. Hawkins, A Heritage in Crisis: Where We've Been, Where We Are, and Where We're Going in the Churches of Christ, University Press of America, 2008, 147 pages, ISBN 0-7618-4080-X, 9780761840800
  49. ^ a b Ross, Bobby Jr. "Who are we?". Features. The Christian Chronicle. http://www.christianchronicle.org/article621~Who_are_we%3F. Retrieved 2007-10-29. 
  50. ^ "Whenever there are disagreements in the Churches of Christ, a 'reference to the scriptures is made in settling every religious question. A pronouncement from the scripture is considered the final word.'" page 240, Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church, Brazos Press, 2003
  51. ^ See F. LaGard Smith, "The Cultural Church", 20th Century Christian, 1992, 237 pages, ISBN 978-0-89098-131-3
  52. ^ a b c d e f g Thomas H. Olbricht, "Hermeneutics in the Churches of Christ," Restoration Quarterly, Vol. 37/No. 1 (1995)
  53. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, page 219
  54. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Tom J. Nettles, Richard L. Pratt, Jr., John H. Armstrong, Robert Kolb, Understanding Four Views on Baptism, Zondervan, 2007, ISBN 0-310-26267-4, 9780310262671, 222 pages
  55. ^ a b c d Rees Bryant, Baptism, Why Wait?: Faith's Response in Conversion, College Press, 1999, ISBN 0-89900-858-5, 9780899008585, 224 pages
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Baptism
  57. ^ a b Harold Hazelip, Gary Holloway, Randall J. Harris, Mark C. Black, Theology Matters: In Honor of Harold Hazelip: Answers for the Church Today, College Press, 1998, ISBN 0-89900-813-5, 9780899008134, 368 pages
  58. ^ a b Douglas A. Foster, "Churches of Christ and Baptism: An Historical and Theological Overview," Restoration Quarterly, Volume 43/Number 2 (2001)
  59. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Regeneration
  60. ^ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Instrumental Music
  61. ^ Ross, Bobby Jr (January 2007). "Nation's largest Church of Christ adding instrumental service". christianchronicle.org. The Christian Chronicle. http://www.christianchronicle.org/article555~Nation%27s_largest_Church_of_Christ_adding_instrumental_service. Retrieved 2008-09-19. 
  62. ^ a b c d Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Theology
  63. ^ "Creeds are rejected because they are believed to generate schisms in the body of Christ. As well, theological paradigms (such as Calvinism and Arminianism) are avoided because the New Testament alone is the proper guide to doctrinal belief." Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4, page 123.
  64. ^ See the article on Harding School of Theology.
  65. ^ Dispensational premillennialism is characterized by an emphasis on the rapture, the restoration of Israel, Armageddon and related ideas.
  66. ^ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Boll, Robert Henry
  67. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Eschatology
  68. ^ Robert E. Hooper, A Distinct People: A History of the Churches of Christ in the 20th Century (West Monroe, LA: Howard Publishing, 1994), pp. 131–180 et passim, ISBN 1-878990-26-8.
  69. ^ Mac Lynn, Churches of Christ in the United States: inclusive of her commonwealth and territories, Twentieth Century Christian Books, 2000, ISBN 0-89098-172-8, 9780890981726, 682 pages
  70. ^ a b c d Douglas A. Foster, "Waves of the Spirit Against a Rational Rock: The Impact of the Pentecostal, Charismatic and Third Wave Movements on American Churches of Christ," Restoration Quarterly, 45:1, 2003
  71. ^ See for example, Harvey Floyd, Is the Holy Spirit for me?: A search for the meaning of the Spirit in today's church, 20th Century Christian, 1981, ISBN 978-0-89098-446-8, 128 pages
  72. ^ Hans Rollmann, "In Essentials Unity: The Pre-history of a Restoration Movement Slogan," Restoration Quarterly, Volume 39/Number 3 (1997)
  73. ^ Garrison, Winfred Earnest and DeGroot, Alfred T. (1948). The Disciples of Christ, A History, St Louis, Missouri: The Bethany Press
  74. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, Introductory section entitled Stone-Campbell History Over Three Centuries: A Survey and Analysis
  75. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, Introductory Chronology
  76. ^ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Great Awakenings
  77. ^ David Lipscomb, 1899, as quoted by Leroy Garrett on page 104 of The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
  78. ^ a b c McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) – St. Louis, Chalice Press, ISBN 978-0-8272-1703-4
  79. ^ David Lipscomb, Gospel Advocate, 49 (1 August 1907): 488–489.
  80. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Race Relations
  81. ^ "The manner in which the brethren in some quarters are going in for the negro meetings leads one to wonder whether they are trying to make white folks out of the negroes or negroes out of the white folks. The trend of the general mix-up seems to be toward the latter. Reliable reports have come to me of white women, members of the church, becoming so animated over a certain colored preacher as to go up to him after a sermon and shake hands with him holding his hand in both of theirs. That kind of thing will turn the head of most white preachers, and sometimes affect their conduct, and anybody ought to know that it will make fools out of the negroes. For any woman in the church to so far forget her dignity, and lower herself so, just because a negro has learned enough about the gospel to preach it to his race, is pitiable indeed. Her husband should take her in charge unless he has gone crazy, too. In that case somebody ought to take both of them in charge." Foy E. Wallace, March 1941, "Negro Meetings for White People," in the Bible Banner.
  82. ^ Don Haymes. ""Abilene Christian College Desegregates its Graduate School", Christian Chronicle 18 (9 June 1961):1, 6". http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/race/haymes22.html. 
  83. ^ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Southwestern Christian College
  84. ^ Randy Harshbarger, "A history of the institutional controversy among Texas Churches of Christ: 1945 to the present," M.A. thesis, Stephen F. Austin State University, 2007 , 149 pages; AAT 1452110
  85. ^ a b c d e f g h Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on International Churches of Christ
  86. ^ a b c d Paden, Russell (July 1995). "The Boston Church of Christ". In Timothy Miller. America's Alternative Religions. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 133–36. ISBN 978-0-7914-2397-4. http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=%22international+churches+of+christ%22%7C%22boston+church+of+christ%22&id=og_u0Re1uwUC. Retrieved 2007-08-07. 
  87. ^ Kip McKean, Resignation Letter dated Wednesday, November 06, 2002 (Archived December 6, 2007 at the Wayback Machine)
  88. ^ Greeson, Timothy (2005). "ICOC Update 2005: Is the Threat Resurfacing?". New Covenant Publications. http://www.newcovpub.com/icc/update2005.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-09. 
  89. ^ Lee, Chris (2005 Sept). "Three Major Factions". REVEAL. http://www.reveal.org/abouticc/factions.html. Retrieved 2007-07-09. 
  90. ^ Robert Carrillo, "The Church of Christ and the International Churches of Christ," Restoration Press
  91. ^ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Africa, Missions in
  92. ^ a b c Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Asia, Missions in
  93. ^ a b c d e f Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Australia, The Movement in
  94. ^ Wayne Turner, "The Strangers Among Us," Gospel Herald, February 2007
  95. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Great Britain and Ireland, Churches of Christ in
  96. ^ a b c d Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Europe, Missions in
  97. ^ David M. Thompson, Let Sects and Parties Fall: A Short History of the Association of Churches of Christ in Great Britain and Ireland, Berean Publishing Trust (January 1980), ISBN 978-0-85050-012-7, 160 pages

External links

v · d · eRestoration Movement
Predecessor Movements
Early Leaders
Alexander Campbell · Thomas Campbell · Tolbert Fanning · Benjamin Franklin · Marshall Keeble · David Lipscomb · William Lipscomb · Charles J. Lister · Elijah Martindale · John William McGarvey · James O'Kelly · David Purviance · "Raccoon" John Smith · Daniel Sommer · Walter Scott · Barton W. Stone
U.S. Branches
 
Churches of Christ
 
International Christian Churches
 
Non-U.S. Branches
Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ in Canada · Churches of Christ in Canada · Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in Canada · Churches of Christ in Australia ·
v · d · eUniversities and colleges affiliated with the Churches of Christ

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