Jazz

For other uses, see Jazz (disambiguation).

Jazz
Stylistic origins:	Blues • Folk • March • Ragtime
Cultural origins:	Early 1910s New Orleans
Typical instruments:	Saxophone · Clarinet · Flute · Vibraphone · Trumpet · Piano · Guitar · Banjo · Tuba · Double bass · Bass guitar · Vocals  · Trombone · Drum kit
Mainstream popularity:	1920s–1960s
Derivatives:	Jump blues • Rhythm and blues  • Rock and roll  • Ska  • Reggae  • Funk
Subgenres
Asian American jazz • Avant-garde jazz • Bebop • Big band • Chamber jazz • Continental jazz • Cool jazz • Free jazz • Gypsy jazz • Hard Bop • Latin jazz • Mainstream jazz • M-Base • Neo-bop • Orchestral jazz • Post-bop • Soul jazz • Stride • Swing • Third stream • Traditional jazz • Traditional pop • Vocal jazz
Fusion genres
Acid jazz • Afrobeat • Bluegrass • Bossa nova • Crossover jazz • Dansband • Free funk • Humppa • Jam band • Jazzcore • Jazz funk • Jazz fusion • Jazz rap • Kwela • Livetronica • Mambo • Manila Sound • Nu jazz • Nu soul • Punk jazz • Shibuya-kei • Ska jazz • Smooth jazz • Swing revival • World fusion • Yé-yé
Regional scenes
Australia • Azerbaijan • Brazil • Cuba • France • Germany • India • Italy • Japan • Malawi • Netherlands • Poland • South Africa • Spain • United Kingdom
Local scenes
Cape Town • Kansas City • New Orleans • West Coast
Jazz musicians
Bassists • Clarinetists • Drummers • Guitarists • Organists • Pianists • Saxophonists • Trombonists • Trumpeters
Other topics
Jazz standard • Jazz royalty • Jazz (word) • Jazz clubs • Jazz drumming
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Jazz is a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States. It was born out of a mix of African and European music traditions. From its early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from 19th and 20th century American popular music.^[1] Its West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, call-response, and the swung note.^[2]

The word "jazz" (in early years also spelled "jass") began as a West Coast slang term and was first used to refer to music in Chicago at about 1915.^{[citation needed]}

From its beginnings in the early 20th century jazz has spawned a variety of subgenres: New Orleans Dixieland dating from the early 1910s, big band-style swing from the 1930s and 1940s, bebop from the mid-1940s, free jazz and a variety of Latin jazz fusions, such as Afro-Cuban, from the 1950s and 1960s, jazz fusion from the 1970s, acid jazz from the 1980s (which combines funk and hip-hop elements), and nu jazz in the 1990s. As the music has spread around the world it has drawn on local, national, and regional musical cultures, its aesthetics being adapted to its varied environments and giving rise to many distinctive styles.

Definition

Jazz can be very difficult to define because it spans from Ragtime marches to the present day. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions—using the point of view of European music history or African music for example—but jazz critic Joachim Berendt argues that all such attempts are unsatisfactory.^[3] One way to get around the definitional problems is to define the term "jazz" more broadly. Berendt defines jazz as a "form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of blacks with European music"; he argues that jazz differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time, defined as 'swing'", "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role"; and "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician".^[3]

Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone player Pharoah Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978

Travis Jackson has also proposed a broader definition of jazz which is able to encompass all of the radically different eras: he states that it is music that includes qualities such as "swinging", improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being 'open' to different musical possibilities".^[4] Krin Gabbard claims that “jazz is a construct” or category that, while artificial, still is useful to designate “a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition”.^[5] In a 1988 interview, trombonist J.J. Johnson said, "Jazz is restless. It won't stay put and it never will".^[6]

While jazz may be difficult to define, improvisation is clearly one of its key elements. Early blues was commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, a common element in the African American oral tradition. A form of folk music which rose in part from work songs and field hollers of rural Blacks, early blues was also highly improvisational. These features are fundamental to the nature of jazz. While in European classical music elements of interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment are sometimes left to the performer's discretion, the performer's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written.

In jazz, however, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways, never playing the same composition exactly the same way twice. Depending upon the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with fellow musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician/performer may alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will. The jazz soloist is supported by a rhythm section who "comp", by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist.^[7] European classical music has been said to be a composer's medium. Jazz, however, is often characterized as the product of egalitarian creativity, interaction and collaboration, placing equal value on the contributions of composer and performer, 'adroitly weigh[ing] the respective claims of the composer and the improviser'.^[8]

In New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized—many early jazz performers could not read music. Individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back towards small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody (known as the "head") would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations. Later styles of jazz such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode.^[9] The avant-garde and free jazz idioms permit, even call for, abandoning chords, scales, and rhythmic meters.

Debates

There have long been debates in the jazz community over the definition and the boundaries of “jazz”. Although alteration or transformation of jazz by new influences has often been initially criticized as a “debasement,” Andrew Gilbert argues that jazz has the “ability to absorb and transform influences” from diverse musical styles.^[10] While some enthusiasts of certain types of jazz have argued for narrower definitions which exclude many other types of music also commonly known as "jazz," jazz musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play. Duke Ellington summed it up by saying, "It's all music."^[11] Some critics have even stated that Ellington's music was not jazz because it was arranged and orchestrated.^[12] On the other hand Ellington's friend Earl Hines's twenty solo "transformative versions" of Ellington compositions (on Earl Hines Plays Duke Ellington recorded in the 1970s) were described by Ben Ratliff, the New York Times jazz critic, as "as good an example of the jazz process as anything out there."^[13]

Commercially oriented or popular music-influenced forms of jazz have both long been criticized, at least since the emergence of Bop. Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed Bop, the 1970s jazz fusion era [and much else] as a period of commercial debasement of the music. According to Bruce Johnson, jazz music has always had a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".^[4] Gilbert notes that as the notion of a canon of jazz is developing, the “achievements of the past” may become "...privileged over the idiosyncratic creativity...” and innovation of current artists. Village Voice jazz critic Gary Giddins argues that as the creation and dissemination of jazz is becoming increasingly institutionalized and dominated by major entertainment firms, jazz is facing a "...perilous future of respectability and disinterested acceptance." David Ake warns that the creation of “norms” in jazz and the establishment of a “jazz tradition” may exclude or sideline other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz.^[4]

Etymology of "Jazz"

Main article: Jazz (word)

The origin of the word jazz is one of the most sought-after word origins in modern American English.^{[citation needed]} The word's intrinsic interest—the American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century—has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. The word began as West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of which varied but did not refer to music or sex. The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune.^[14] Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans appears in a November 14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about "jas bands."^[15]

The word jazz makes one of its earliest appearances in San Francisco baseball writing in 1913.^[16] Jazz was introduced to San Francisco in 1913 by William (Spike) Slattery, sports editor of the Call, and propagated by a band-leader named Art Hickman. It reached Chicago by 1915 but was not heard of in New York until a year later.^[17] One of the first known uses of the word appears in a March 3, 1913, baseball article in the San Francisco Bulletin by E. T. "Scoop" Gleeson.^[18]

Origins

In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion.

By 1808 the Atlantic slave trade had brought almost half a million Africans to the United States. The slaves largely came from West Africa and brought strong tribal musical traditions with them.^[19] Lavish festivals featuring African dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843; there were similar gatherings in New England and New York. African music was largely functional, for work or ritual, and included work songs and field hollers. The African tradition made use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, but without the European concept of harmony. Rhythms reflected African speech patterns, and the African use of pentatonic scales led to blue notes in blues and jazz.^[20]

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo and bones.

In the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized such music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted African-American cakewalk music, South American, Caribbean and other slave melodies as piano salon music. Another influence came from black slaves who had learned the harmonic style of hymns and incorporated it into their own music as spirituals.^[21] The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. Paul Oliver has drawn attention to similarities in instruments, music and social function to the griots of the West African savannah.^[22]

1890s–1910s

Ragtime

Main article: Ragtime

Scott Joplin in 1907

The abolition of slavery led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide "low-class" entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, by which many marching bands formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed.^[23][24]

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895; two years later Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo "Rag Time Medley".^[25][26] Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his Harlem Rag, that was the first rag published by an African-American. The classically trained pianist Scott Joplin and the acknowledged "king of ragtime" produced his "Original Rags" in the following year, then in 1899 had an international hit with "Maple Leaf Rag". He wrote numerous popular rags, including, "The Entertainer", combining syncopation, banjo figurations and sometimes call-and-response, which led to the ragtime idiom being taken up by classical composers including Claude Debussy and Igor Stravinsky. Blues music was published and popularized by W. C. Handy, whose "Memphis Blues" of 1912 and "St. Louis Blues" of 1914 both became jazz standards.^[22]

New Orleans music

Main article: Dixieland

The music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city; the brothels and bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, called "Storyville".^[27] was only one of numerous neighborhoods relevant to the early days of New Orleans jazz. In addition to dance bands, numerous marching bands played at lavish funerals arranged by the African American and European American community. The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale and drums. Small bands mixing self-taught and well educated African American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz, traveling throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 on, Afro-Creole and African American musicians playing in vaudeville shows took jazz to western and northern US cities.^[28]

The Bolden Band around 1905.

The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band often mentioned as one of the prime movers of the style later to be called "jazz". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906. No recordings remain of Bolden. Several tunes from the Bolden band repertory, including "Buddy Bolden Blues", have been recorded by many other musicians. (Bolden became mentally ill and spent his later decades in a mental institution.)

Morton published "Jelly Roll Blues" in 1915, the first jazz work in print.

Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. His "Jelly Roll Blues", which he composed around 1905, was published in 1915 as the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.^[29] In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.^[30][31] The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of "Stride" piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.^[32]

The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz record.^{[33][34][35][36][37][38][39]} That year numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, mostly ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In September 1917 W.C. Handy's Orchestra of Memphis recorded a cover version of "Livery Stable Blues."^[40] In February 1918 James Reese Europe's "Hellfighters" infantry band took ragtime to Europe during World War I,^[41] then on return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters' Ball".^[31]

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city while helping black children escape poverty.^[42] The leader of the Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet.

1920s and 1930s

The Jazz Age

Prohibition in the United States (from 1920 to 1933) banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies becoming lively venues of the "Jazz Age", an era when popular music included current dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz started to get a reputation as being immoral and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old values in culture and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote “...it is not music at all. It’s merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion.”^[43]

Even the media began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times took stories and altered headlines to pick at Jazz. For instance, villagers used pots and pans in Siberia to scare off bears, and the newspaper stated that it was Jazz that scared the bears away. Another story claims that Jazz caused the death of a celebrated conductor. The actual cause of death was a fatal heart attack (natural cause).^[43] From 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.^[44][45] However, the main centre developing the new "Hot Jazz" was Chicago, where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.^[46]

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921.

Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924. Also in 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band as featured soloist for a year, then formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, also popularizing scat singing.^[47] Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman's orchestra. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premièred by Whiteman's Orchestra. Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson's band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the Cotton Club in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines's Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz.^[48]

Swing

Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz

The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw.

Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a much-imitated innovator of early jazz.

Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio 'live' nightly across America for many years especially by Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago, well placed for 'live' time-zones. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to 'solo' and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex and 'important' music. Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music, and blues chord progressions. Jump blues drew on boogie-woogie from the 1930s. Kansas City Jazz in the 1930s as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s.

Beginnings of European jazz

Outside of the United States the beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz emerged in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France which began in 1934. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel. The main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre,^[49] which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.^[50]

1940s and 1950s

Dixieland revival

Louis Armstrong in 1953

Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz

In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music, harkening back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two populations of musicians involved in the revival. One group consisted of players who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style, and were either returning to it, or continuing what they had been playing all along, such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison. Most of this group were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second population of revivalists consisted of young musicians such as the Lu Watters band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.^[51]

Bebop

Main article: Bebop

See also: List of bebop musicians

Thelonious Monk at Minton's Playhouse, 1947, New York City.

In the early 1940s bebop performers helped to shift jazz from danceable popular music towards a more challenging "musician's music." Differing greatly from swing, early bebop divorced itself from dance music, establishing itself more as an art form but lessening its potential popular and commercial value. Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it used faster tempos. Beboppers introduced new forms of chromaticism and dissonance into jazz; the dissonant tritone (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"^[52] and players engaged in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation which used "passing" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. The style of drumming shifted as well to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time, while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with "racing, nervous phrases".^[53] Despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary. The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach.

Cool jazz

By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency towards calm and smoothness, with the sounds of cool jazz, which favoured long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, as a result of the mixture of the styles of predominantly white jazz musicians and black bebop musicians, and it dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point were a series of singles on Capitol Records in 1949 and 1950 of a nonet led by trumpeter Miles Davis, collected and released first on a ten-inch and later a twelve-inch as the Birth of the Cool. Cool jazz recordings by Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz and the Modern Jazz Quartet usually have a "lighter" sound which avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop. Cool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene, but also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, with emergence of such major figures as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were set out by the blind Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano, and its influence stretches into such later developments as Bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz. See also the List of Cool jazz and West Coast jazz musicians for further detail.

Hard bop

Main article: Hard bop

See also: List of Hard bop musicians

Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music that incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music, and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s. The hard bop style coalesced in 1953 and 1954, paralleling the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' performance of "Walkin' ", the title track of his album of the same year, at the very first Newport Jazz Festival in 1954, announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Clifford Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis.

Modal jazz

Main article: Modal jazz

Modal jazz is a development beginning in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, the goal of the soloist was to play a solo that fit into a given chord progression. However, with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one or a small number of modes. The emphasis in this approach shifts from harmony to melody.^[54] The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell, but again Miles Davis unveiled this shift to the rest of the jazz world with Kind of Blue, an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz and the best selling jazz album of all time. Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,^[55] John Coltrane and Bill Evans, also present on Kind of Blue, as well as later musicians such as Herbie Hancock.

Free jazz

Main article: Free jazz

A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brötzmann, a key figure in European free jazz

Free jazz and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.^[56] While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres. The first major stirrings came in the 1950s, with the early work of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, performers included John Coltrane, Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler, Pharoah Sanders, and others. Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe – in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods in Europe. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) flourished also because of the emergence of musicians (such as John Surman, Zbigniew Namyslowski, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Keith Jarrett has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists in the 1990s and 2000s.

1960s and 1970s

Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz

Latin jazz

Main article: Latin jazz

Latin jazz combines rhythms from African and Latin American countries, often played on instruments such as conga, timbales, güiro, and claves, with jazz and classical harmonies played on typical jazz instruments (piano, double bass, etc.). There are two main varieties: Afro-Cuban jazz was played in the US right after the bebop period, while became more popular in the 1960s. Afro-Cuban jazz began as a movement in the mid-1950s as bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor started Afro-Cuban bands influenced by such Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians as Xavier Cugat, Tito Puente and Arturo Sandoval. Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English. The style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim. The related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of bossa nova compositions to the jazz idiom by American performers such as Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd.

Bossa nova was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of Chega de Saudade on the Canção do Amor Demais LP, composed by Vinícius de Moraes (lyrics) and Antonio Carlos Jobim (music). The initial releases by Gilberto and the 1959 film Black Orpheus brought significant popularity in Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America, which spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented its popularity and led to a worldwide boom with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald (Ella Abraça Jobim) and Frank Sinatra (Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim) and the entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music for several decades and even up to the present.

Post bop

Main article: Post-bop

Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onward that assimilates influence from hard bop, modal jazz, the avant-garde, and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above.

Much "post-bop" was recorded on Blue Note Records. Key albums include Speak No Evil by Wayne Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Herbie Hancock; Miles Smiles by Miles Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee Morgan (an artist not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with later hard bop.

Soul jazz

Main article: Soul jazz

Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong influences from blues, gospel and rhythm and blues in music for small groups, often the organ trio, which partnered a Hammond organ player with a drummer and a tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were often less complex than in other jazz styles. Horace Silver had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. It often had a steadier "funk" style groove, different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff and Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Stanley Turrentine. (See also List of soul-jazz musicians.)

Jazz fusion

Main article: Jazz fusion

Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989

In the late 1960s and early 1970s the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix. All Music Guide states that "..until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate." However, "...as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces." ^[57] Miles Davis made the breakthrough into fusion in 1970 with his album Bitches Brew. Musicians who worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971 and were soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters. Although jazz purists protested the blend of jazz and rock, some of jazz's significant innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. Jazz fusion music often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords and harmonies. In addition to using the electric instruments of rock, such as the electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards, fusion also used the powerful amplification, "fuzz" pedals, wah-wah pedals, and other effects used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams, violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan where the band Casiopea released over thirty fusion albums.

In the twenty-first century, almost all jazz has influences from other nations and styles of music, making jazz fusion as much a common practice as style. The host of a progressive radio jazz program, Passport to Modern Jazz on KRVS-FM, D'Jalma Garnier, plays New Orleans jazz from all periods, as well as latest contemporary and avant-garde, like the Bulgarian wedding band Ivo Papasov that successfully fuses Bulgarian folk using the kaval with American free jazz instrumentation and riffs.^[58]

Jazz funk

Main article: jazz-funk

Developed by the mid-1970s, is characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds,^[59] and often, the presence of the first electronic analog synthesizers. The integration of Funk, Soul and R&B music and styles into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is indeed quite wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.^[60]

At the jazz end of the spectrum, jazz-funk characteristics include a departure from ternary rhythm (near-triplet), i.e. the "swing", to the more danceable and unfamiliar binary rhythm, known as the "groove". Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Latin American rhythms and Jamaican reggae, most notably Kingston band leader Sonny Bradshaw. A second characteristic of jazz-funk music is the use of electric instruments, and the first use of analogue electronic instruments notably by Herbie Hancock, whose jazz-funk period saw him surrounded on stage or in the studio by several Moog synthesizers. The ARP Odyssey, ARP String Ensemble and Hohner D6 Clavinet also became popular at the time. A third feature is the shift of proportions between composition and improvisation. Arrangements, melody and overall writing were heavily emphasized.

Other trends

There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the early 1970s. Musicians such as Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter began using African instruments such as kalimbas, cowbells, beaded gourds and other instruments not traditional to jazz. Musicians began improvising jazz tunes on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane), electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty), and even bagpipes (Rufus Harley). Jazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music, such as world music, avant garde classical music, and rock and pop music. Guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East Indian influences. The ECM record label began in Germany in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic, featuring mainly acoustic instruments, and sometimes incorporating elements of world music and folk music.

1980s–2010s

Main articles: 1980s in jazz, 1990s in jazz, and 2000s in jazz

In 1987, the US House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music stating, among other things, "...that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." ^[61]

Traditionalist and Experimental divide

In the 1980s, the jazz community shrank dramatically and split. A mainly older audience retained an interest in traditional and straight-ahead jazz styles. Wynton Marsalis strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, creating extensions of small and large forms initially pioneered by such artists as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington. In the 2000s, straight-ahead jazz continues to appeal to a core group of listeners. Well-established jazz musicians, such as Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, Sonny Rollins, Wayne Shorter and Jessica Williams continue to perform and record. In the 1990s and 2000s, a number of young musicians emerged, including US pianists Brad Mehldau, Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman and bassist Christian McBride.

In the United States, several musicians and groups explored the more experimental end of the spectrum, including trumpeters Rob Mazurek and Cuong Vu, saxophonist Ken Vandermark, guitarist Nels Cline, bassist Todd Sickafoose, keyboardist Craig Taborn, drummer/percussionist John Hollenbeck, guitarist John Scofield and the groups Medeski Martin & Wood and The Bad Plus. Outside of the US, the Swedish group E.S.T. and British groups Acoustic Ladyland, Led Bib and Polar Bear gained popularity with their progressive takes on jazz. A number of new vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.

Smooth jazz

Main article: smooth jazz

In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called pop fusion or "smooth jazz" became successful and garnered significant radio airplay. Smooth jazz saxophonists include Grover Washington, Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. Smooth jazz received frequent airplay with more straight-ahead jazz in "quiet storm" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S., helping to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade. In this same time period Chaka Khan released Echoes of an Era, which featured Joe Henderson, Freddie Hubbard, Chick Corea, Stanley Clarke and Lenny White. She also released the song "And the Melody Still Lingers On (Night in Tunisia)" with Dizzy Gillespie reviving the solo break from "Night in Tunisia".

In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are in the 90–105 BPM range), layering a lead, melody-playing instrument (saxophones–especially soprano and tenor–are the most popular, with legato electric guitar playing a close second) over a backdrop that typically consists of programmed electronic drum rhythms, synth pads and samples^{[citation needed]}. In his Newsweek article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism"^[62] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion as a turning point that led to smooth jazz. In Aaron J. West's introduction to his analysis of smooth jazz, "Caught Between Jazz and Pop" he states,

I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.^[63]

Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap

Acid jazz developed in the UK over the 1980s and 1990s and influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Jazz-funk musicians such as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as forerunners of acid jazz.^[64] While acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including sampling or live DJ cutting and scratching), it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Nu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, there are usually no improvisational aspects. It ranges from combining live instrumentation with beats of jazz house, exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia, to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements such as that of The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol, and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist, Nils Petter Molvær, and others. Nu jazz can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept.

Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and incorporates jazz influence into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single "Words I Manifest", sampling Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released "Talkin' All That Jazz", sampling Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP, No More Mr. Nice Guy (Wild Pitch, 1989), and their track "Jazz Thing" (CBS, 1990) for the soundtrack of Mo' Better Blues, sampling Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. Gang Starr also collaborated with Branford Marsalis and Terence Blanchard.Groups making up the collective known as the Native Tongues Posse tended towards jazzy releases; these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (Warlock, 1988) and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (Jive, 1990) and The Low End Theory (Jive, 1991). The Low End Theory has become one of hip hop's most acclaimed albums, and earned praise too from jazz bassist Ron Carter, who played double bass on one track. Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Beginning in 1993, rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series used jazz musicians during the studio recordings. Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, jazz legend Miles Davis' final album (released posthumously in 1992), Doo-Bop, was based around hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock returned to hip hop influences in the mid-nineties, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994.

Punk jazz and jazzcore

John Zorn performing in 2006.

The relaxation of orthodoxy concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation for jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz, along with dub reggae, into their brand of punk rock.^[65] In NYC, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,^[66] the work of James Chance and the Contortions, who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk,^[66] Gray, and the Lounge Lizards,^[66] who were the first group to call themselves "punk jazz".

John Zorn began to make note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock and incorporated this into free jazz. This began in 1986 with the album Spy vs. Spy, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.^[67] The same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell, and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit, a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.^[68] These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk.

In the 1990s, punk jazz and jazzcore began to reflect the increasing awareness of elements of extreme metal (particularly thrash metal and death metal) in hardcore punk. A new style of "metallic jazzcore" was developed by Iceburn, from Salt Lake City, and Candiria, from New York City, though anticipated by Naked City and Pain Killer. This tendency also takes inspiration from jazz inflections in technical death metal, such as the work of Cynic and Atheist.

M-Base

Main article: M-Base

Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004

The M-Base movement was started in the 1980s by a loose collective of young African-American musicians (Steve Coleman, Graham Haynes, Cassandra Wilson, Geri Allen, Greg Osby etc.) who emerged in New York with a new sound and specific ideas about creative expression. With a strong foothold as well as in the tradition represented by Charlie Parker and John Coltrane as in contemporary African-American groove music and with a high degree of musical skills,^[69] the saxophonists Steve Coleman, Greg Osby, and Gary Thomas developed unique and complex, nevertheless grooving^[70] musical languages. In the 1990s most participants of the M-Base movement turned to more conventional music but Steve Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept. In a long research process he developed a philosophical and spiritual concept connecting with certain cultural efforts that express fundamental aspects of nature and human existence in a holistic way. Steve Coleman found these efforts all over the world and they reach far back into ancient times.^[71] Thus, he gave his music a specific meaning which is similar to the intentions of religious music, of European composers like J.S. Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven, as well as of musicians in the tradition represented by John Coltrane.^[72] In accordance to this spiritual perspective, Coleman’s music became rather advanced in several aspects. His audience decreased a bit but his music and concepts have been a heavy influence on many musicians^[73] - both in terms of music-technique^[74] and of the music’s meaning.^[75] Hence, “M-Base” changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Steve Coleman “school”^[76] with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.^[77]

See also

	African American portal
	Jazz portal
	Music portal

• Glossary of jazz and popular musical terms
• Jazz poetry
• List of jazz festivals
• List of jazz guitarists
• List of jazz institutions and organizations
• List of jazz pianists
• List of jazz violinists
• List of jazz vocalists
• Museum of African American Music
• Timeline of jazz education
• Cape Jazz

Notes

1. ^ Bill Kirchner, The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford University Press, 2005, Chapter Two.
2. ^ Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd. ed., Continuum, 2007, pp. 4–5
3. ^ ^{a b} Joachim E. Berendt. The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books. Page 371
4. ^ ^{a b c} In Review of The Cambridge Companion to Jazz^{[dead link]} by Peter Elsdon, FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of Musicology) No. 6, 2003
5. ^ Cooke, Mervyn; Horn, David G. (2002). The Cambridge companion to jazz. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 6. ISBN 0521663881. 
6. ^ DownBeat: The Great Jazz Interviews - A 75th Anniversary Anthology
7. ^ Jazz Drum Lessons - Drumbook.org
8. ^ Giddins 1998 70.
9. ^ (e.g., "So What" on the Miles Davis album Kind of Blue)
10. ^ In "Jazz Inc."^{[dead link]} by Andrew Gilbert, Metro Times, December 23, 1998
11. ^ Luebbers, Johannes (2008-09-08). "It's All Music". Resonate (Australian Music Centre). 
12. ^ Schuller, Gunther (1991). The swing era. Oxford University Press. 
13. ^ Ratliff 2002, 19.
14. ^ Seagrove, Gordon (1915-07-11). "Blues is Jazz and Jazz Is Blues" (PDF). Chicago Daily Tribune. http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-04.  Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, Paris-Sorbonne University .
15. ^ Benjamin Zimmer (2009-06-08). ""Jazz": A Tale of Three Cities". Word Routes. The Visual Thesaurus. http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/1876/. Retrieved 2009-06-08. 
16. ^ Wilton, David (2004). Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends. Oxford University Press. pp. ?. ISBN 0-19-517284-1. 
17. ^ Mencken, H. L. The American Language, Supplement II. Knopf, 1948, p. 709.
18. ^ "McCarl has been heralded all along the line as a 'busher,' but now it develops that this dope is very much to the 'jazz.'" Three days later, Gleeson writes: "Everybody has come back to the old town full of the old 'jazz' and [the San Francisco Seals] promise to knock the fans off their feet with their playing. What is the 'jazz'? Why, it’s a little of that 'old life,' the 'gin-i-ker,' the 'pep,' otherwise known as the enthusiasalum [sic]. A grain of 'jazz' and you feel like going out and eating your way through Twin Peaks. [...] The team which speeded into town this morning comes pretty close to representing the pick of the army. Its members have trained on ragtime and 'jazz' and manager Dell Howard says there’s no stopping them." E. T. “Scoop” Gleeson, March 3, 1913, San Francisco Bulletin.
    In 1938, Gleeson recalled the origin of jazz: "Similarly the very word 'jazz' itself, came into general usage at the same time. We were all seated around the dinner table at Boyes [Springs, Sonoma County, the Seals spring training site,] and William ('Spike') Slattery, then sports editor of The Call, spoke about something being the 'jazz,' or the old 'gin-iker fizz.' 'Spike' had picked up the expression in a crap game. Whenever one of the players rolled the dice he would shout, 'Come on, the old jazz.' For the next week we gave 'jazz' a great play in all our stories. And when Hickman’s orchestra swung into action for the evening’s dances, it was natural to find it included as 'the jazziest tune tooters in all the Valley of the Moon.'" in E. T. Gleeson, "I Remember the Birth of Jazz," The Call-Bulletin, September 3, 1938, p. 3, col. 1, reprinted in Cohen, Jazz Revisited.
19. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 7–9
20. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 11–14
21. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 14–17, 27–28
22. ^ ^{a b} Cooke 1999, p. 18
23. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 28, 47
24. ^ Catherine Schmidt-Jones (2006). "Ragtime". Connexions. http://cnx.org/content/m10878/latest/. Retrieved 2007-10-18. 
25. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 28–29
26. ^ "The First Ragtime Records (1897–1903)". http://www.redhotjazz.com/firstragtimerecords.html. Retrieved 2007-10-18. 
27. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 47, 50
28. ^ "Original Creole Orchestra". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/creole.html. Retrieved 2007-10-23. 
29. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 38, 56
30. ^ Cooke 1999, p. 78
31. ^ ^{a b} Floyd Levin (1911). "Jim Europe's 369th Infantry "Hellfighters" Band". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/hellfighters.html. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
32. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 41–42
33. ^ Schoenherr, Steven. "Recording Technology History". history.sandiego.edu. http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24. 
34. ^ Thomas, Bob (1994). "The Origins of Big Band Music". redhotjazz.com. http://www.redhotjazz.com/bigband.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24. 
35. ^ Alexander, Scott. "The First Jazz Records". redhotjazz.com. http://www.redhotjazz.com/jazz1917.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24. 
36. ^ "Jazz Milestones". apassion4jazz.net. http://www.apassion4jazz.net/milestones.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24. 
37. ^ "Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography". pbs.org. http://www.pbs.org/jazz/biography/artist_id_original_dixieland_jazz_band.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-24. 
38. ^ Martin, Henry; Waters, Keith (2005). Jazz: The First 100 Years. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 55. ISBN 0534628044. http://books.google.com/?id=kuz4EHH05I4C&pg=PT84&lpg=PT84&dq=first+jazz+recording. 
39. ^ "Tim Gracyk's Phonographs, Singers, and Old Records – Jass in 1916–1917 and Tin Pan Alley". http://www.gracyk.com/jasband.shtml. Retrieved 2007-10-27. 
40. ^ "The First Jazz Records". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/jazz1917.html. Retrieved 2007-10-27. 
41. ^ Cooke 1999, p. 44
42. ^ Illustrated well in HBO's program, Treme, which has succeeded in researching the jazz culture of New Orleans.
43. ^ ^{a b} Ward, Geoffrey C.; Ken Burns (2000). Jazz: A History of America's Music. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 79. 
44. ^ Cooke 1999, p. 54
45. ^ "Kid Ory". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/ory.html. Retrieved 2007-10-29. 
46. ^ "Bessie Smith". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/bessie.html. Retrieved 2007-10-29. 
47. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 56–59, 78–79, 66–70
48. ^ Cooke 1999, pp. 82–83, 100–103
49. ^ "Ed Lang and his Orchestra". www.redhotjazz.com. http://www.redhotjazz.com/edlango.html. Retrieved 2008-03-28. 
50. ^ Crow, Bill (1990). Jazz Anecdotes. New York: Oxford University Press. 
51. ^ Collier, 1978
52. ^ Joachim Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 15.
53. ^ Joachim Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 16.
54. ^ Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958. Da Capo. pp. 110–111. ISBN 0-306-80377-1. 
55. ^ Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958. Da Capo. pp. 120–123. ISBN 0-306-80377-1. 
56. ^ Joachim Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 21.
57. ^ "Explore: Fusion". AllMusic. http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d299. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
58. ^ Passport to Modern Jazz on KRVS.org and KRVS-FM | http://www.facebook.com/pages/Passport-To-Modern-Jazz-host-DJalma-Garnier/159746017391892
59. ^ "Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts". Rhapsody Online — Rhapsody.com. 2010-10-20. http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
60. ^ "allmusic". allmusic. http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d202. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
61. ^ It passed in the House of Representatives on September 23rd, 1987 and it passed the Senate on November 4th, 1987. The entire six point mandate can be found on the HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues website. HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues – http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html
62. ^ Stanley Crouch (2003-06-05). "Opinion: The Problem With Jazz Criticism". Newsweek. newsweek.com. http://www.newsweek.com/id/58477. Retrieved 2010-04-09. 
63. ^ "Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of Smooth Jazz". Digital.library.unt.edu. 2010-10-23. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9722/. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
64. ^ Ginell, Richard S.. "allmusic on Roy Ayers". Allmusic.com. http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p6035. Retrieved 2010-11-07. ^{[dead link]}
65. ^ Dave Lang, Perfect Sound Forever, February 1999. [1] Access date: November 15, 2008.
66. ^ ^{a b c} Bangs, Lester. "Free Jazz / Punk Rock". Musician Magazine, 1979. [2] Access date: July 20, 2008.
67. ^ ""House Of Zorn," Goblin Archives, at". Sonic.net. http://www.sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
68. ^ "Progressive Ears Album Reviews". Progressiveears.com. 2007-10-19. http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
69. ^ ”... funky, hip music of fearsome technical proficiency ...” (Ian Carr, Digby Fairweather, Brian Priestley, The Rough Guide Jazz, 2nd, 2000, “M-Base”, p. 500)
70. ^ “... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns which preserve their danceable character of popular Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asymmetries ...” (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost, Sozialgeschichte des Jazz, 2003, p. 377
71. ^ [3] Steve Coleman#Biography
72. ^ "Steve Coleman - Digging deep". Innerviews. 2001-09-10. http://www.innerviews.org/inner/coleman.html. Retrieved 2011-06-05. 
73. ^ Pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as “Jazz musician of the year 2010” by the Jazz Journalists Association) said: "It's hard to overstate Steve (Coleman’s) influence. He's affected more than one generation, as much as anyone since John Coltrane.” ([4])
74. ^ “His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacular have had a profound effect on American jazz.” (Ben Ratliff, [5])
75. ^ Vijay Iyer: „It's not just that you can connect the dots by playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his influence is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point of view of what he does and why he does it." ([6])
76. ^ Michael J. West (2010-06-02). "Jazz Articles: Steve Coleman: Vital Information". Jazztimes.com. http://jazztimes.com/articles/26044-steve-coleman-vital-information. Retrieved 2011-06-05. 
77. ^ "What Is M-Base?". M-base.com. http://www.m-base.com/mbase_explanation.html. Retrieved 2011-06-05. 

References

• Adorno, Theodor. "Prisms." The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. 1967.
• Allen, William Francis, Charles Pickard Ware, and Lucy McLim Garrison, eds. 1867. Slave Songs of the United States. New York: A Simpson & Co. Electronic edition, Chapel Hill, N. C.: Academic Affairs Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000.
• Joachim Ernst Berendt, Günther Huesmann (Bearb.): Das Jazzbuch. 7. Auflage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-10-003802-9
• Burns, Ken, and Geoffrey C. Ward. 2000. Jazz—A History of America's Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.
• Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20318-0. .
• Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain. 2nd edition. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9550908-6-8
• Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History (Dell Publishing Co., 1978)
• Davis, Miles. Miles Davis (2005). Boplicity. ISBN 4-006408-264637. 
• Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Review." Frankfürter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 6:159–75.
• Gang Starr. 2006. Mass Appeal: The Best of Gang Starr. CD recording 72435-96708-2-9. New York: Virgin Records.
• Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First Century New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195076753
• Godbolt, Jim. 2005. A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–50 London: Northway. ISBN 0-9537040-5-X
• Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz, fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131826573
• Hersch, Charles (2009). Subversive Sounds: Race and the Birth of Jazz in New Orleans. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226328683. 
• Kenney, William Howland. 1993. Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History, 1904–1930. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195064534 (cloth); paperback reprint 1994 ISBN 0195092600
• Oliver, Paul (1970). Savannah Syncopators: African Retentions in the Blues. London: Studio Vista. ISBN 0-289-79827-2. .
• Mandel, Howard. 2007. Miles, Ornette, Cecil: Jazz Beyond Jazz. Routledge. ISBN 0415967147.
• Porter, Eric. 2002. What Is This Thing Called Jazz? African American Musicians as Artists, Critics and Activists. University of California Press, Ltd. London, England.
• Ratliffe, Ben. 2002. Jazz: A Critic's Guide to the 100 Most Important Recordings. The New York Times Essential Library. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0805070680
• Scaruffi, Piero: A History of Jazz Music 1900–2000. 2007. Omniware. ISBN 978-0-9765531-3-7
• Schuller, Gunther. 1968. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. Oxford University Press. New printing 1986.
• Schuller, Gunther. 1991. The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945. Oxford University Press.
• Searle, Chris. 2008. Forward Groove: Jazz and the Real World from Louis Armstrong to Gilad Atzmon. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9550908-7-5
• Szwed, John Francis. 2000. Jazz 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving Jazz. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0786884967
• Vacher, Peter. 2004. Soloists and Sidemen: American Jazz Stories. London: Northway. ISBN 978-0953704040
• Yanow, Scott. 2004. Jazz on Film: The Complete Story of the Musicians and Music Onscreen. (Backbeat Books) ISBN 0879307838

External links

• Jazz Foundation of America
• Jazz @ the Smithsonian
• Encyclopedia of Jazz Musicians
• Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
• Jazz Artist and Discography Resource
• Red Hot Jazz.com
• Jazz at Lincoln Center website
  • Jazz At Lincoln Center Hall of Fame
• American Jazz Museum website
• The International Archives for the Jazz Organ
• Classic and Contemporary Jazz Music
• The Jazz Archive at Duke University
• Jazz Festivals in Europe
• Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for downloading at Archive.org
• A List of Jazz Lists
• Jazz collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Jazz collected news and commentary at The Guardian
• Jazz at the Open Directory Project