Middle kingdoms of India

Middle kingdoms of India
History of South Asia and India
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Middle kingdoms of India (or Classical India) refers to the political entities in India from the 3rd century BC after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BC. This is known as the classical period of India, during which India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the world controlling between one third and one fourth of the world's wealth. The "Middle" period lasts for some 1,500 years, and ends in the 13th century, with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and the end of the Chalukya Cholas (Rajendra Chola III died 1279).

The extent of Maurya Empire

Contents

The Northwest

The Mauryan Empire, during the 2nd century BC, became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The of the north-west attracted a series of invaders between 200 BC and 300 AD. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians (Mlechhas). First the Satavahanas and later the Gupta Empire, both successor states to the Mauryan Empire, attempt to contain the expansions of the successive before eventually crumbling internally due pressure exerted by these wars.

The invading tribes were influenced by Buddhism which continued to flourish under the patronage of both the invaders and the Satavahanas and Guptas and provides a cultural bridge between the two cultures. Over time, the invaders became "Indianized" as they influence society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and are conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by both intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism as the new kingdoms straddle the Silk route.

The Indo-Scythian Sakas

Main articles: Indo-Scythians and Saka

The Indo-Scythians are a branch of Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and into parts of Western and Central India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last Western Satrap Rudrasimha III in 395 CE.

The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabul, Parthia and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included besides the Sakas[1] other allied tribes, such as the Medii,[2] Xanthii,[2][3] Massagetae, Getae,[4] Parama Kambojas, Avars, Bahlikas, Rishikas and Paradas.

The Indo-Greeks

Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom
Silver coin of the founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Demetrius (r.c. 205-171 BC).

The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom[5]) covered various parts of the north-west and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings,[6] often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India early in the 2nd century BC; in this context the boundary of "India" is the Hindu Kush. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as Taxila[7] Pakistan's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala.[8] These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy's Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.

During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended ancient Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.[9] The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans.[10]

The Yavanas

Main article: Yavana Kingdom

The Yavanas were described as living beyond Gandhara. There was another country mentioned in the epic as Parama Yona, in the far west of Yavana. This could be the Ionia of Greece, somehow related to Indian Ionians or Yavanas. The name Yavana could be the Sanskritized form of the name Ionia. Some believes that the name Ionia originated from the Sanskrit word Ayonija meaning one who born not from a (human) womb or people with extra ordinary origins. Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Hunas were sometimes described as Mlechhas. Sometimes along with them, the Madras, Kambojas, Kekeyas, Sindhus and Gandharas were included. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the Vedic culture, prevailed in the Kuru–Panchala Kingdoms.

The Indo-Parthians

Main article: Indo-Parthian Kingdom

With the rise of the Parthians, the Indus Valley was once again brought under the influence of Persia as they conquered the Indo-Scythians. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares around 20 BCE when he declared his Independence from the Parthians. The kingdom last only briefly until its conquest by the Kushans in the late 1st century CE, and was a loose framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence.

The Pahlavas

Main article: Pahlava

The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita. In some texts the Pahlavas are synonymous with the Pallavas, a dynasty of Southern India: While the Vayu Purana distinguishes between Pahlava and Pahnava, the Vamana Purana and Matsya Purana refer to both as Pallava. The Brahmanda Purana and Markendeya Purana refer to both as Pahlava or Pallava. Bhishama Parava of the Mahabharata does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas are said to be same as the Parasikas. According to P. Carnegy,[11] the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, that is the Parthian language. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of Parthava meaning 'Parthian'.[12] In a 4th century BCE, Vartika of Katyayana mentions the Sakah-Parthavah demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-Parthians, probably by way of commerce.[13]

The Western Satraps

Main article: Western Satraps

The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (35–405) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Southern Sindh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states). Their state, or at least part of it, was called "Ariaca" according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. They were successors to the Indo-Scythians, and were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western" in contrast to the "Northern" Indo-Scythian satraps who ruled in the area of Mathura, such as Rajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.[14] Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy in his 2nd century Geographia still called them "Indo-Scythians".[15] Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years. The word Kshatrapa stands for satrap, and its equivalent in Persian Ksatrapavan, which means viceroy or governor of a province.

The Kushans

Main article: Kushan Empire
Kushan Empire

The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) originally formed in Bactria on either side of the middle course of the Oxus River or Amu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; during the 1st century CE, they expanded their territory to include the Punjab and much of the Ganges basin, conquering a number of kingdoms across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the process.[16][17] The Kushans conquered the central section of the main Silk Routes and, therefore, had control of the overland trade between India, Persia, China and the Roman Empire.

The Indo-Sassanid Kushanshahs

Main article: Indo-Sassanid

The rise of a new Persian dynasty, the Sassanids saw them re-exert their influence into the Indus region and conquer lands from the Kushans setting up the Kushanshahs around 240 AD. They were to maintain their influence in the region until they were overthrown by the rising Caliphate. Afterwards they were displaced in 410 CE by the invasions of the Indo-Hephthalites.

The Hephthalite Hunas

Main articles: Huna (people), Hephthalite, and White Hun
Billon drachm of the Huna King Napki Malka (Afghanistan/ Gandhara, c. 475–576).

The Hephthalite were another Central Asian nomadic tribe to invade. They are also linked to the Yuezhi who founded the Kushan Empire. From their capital in Bamiyan, Afghanistan they extended their rule across the Indus and Northern India thereby pressuring the collapse of the Gupta Empire. They were eventually defeated by the Sassanid Empire in alliance with other Turkic tribes.

The Rais

Main article: Rai Dynasty

The Rai Dynasty of Sindh were patrons of Buddhism even though they also established a huge temple of Shiva in present-day Sukkur, derived from original Shankar, close to their capital in Al-ror.[18] This is consistent with the historical accounts from the times of Emperor Ashoka and Harsha because Indian monarchs never sponsored a state religion and usually patronized more than one faith. The influence of the Rai state exdended from Kashmir and Kannauj in the east, Makran and Debal (Karachi) port in the west, Surat port in south, Kandahar, Sistan, Suleyman, Ferdan and Kikanan hills in the north.

The Gandharan Kambojas

Main articles: Gandhara and Kambojas

The Gandhara Satrapy became an independent kingdom based from Afghanistan and vied with the Tang dynasty, Tibet, the Islamic Caliphate and Turkic tribes for domination in the region.

The Shahis

Main article: Shahi

The Shahi (Devanagari शाही),[19] Sahi,[20] also called Shahiya [21][22] dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan from the decline of the Kushan Empire in 3rd century to the early 9th century.[22] The kingdom was known as Kabul-shahan or Ratbel-shahan from (565–670 CE) when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura (also known as Hund) [23] for its new capital. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the north-western areas of the Indian sub-continent. It was used by Achaemenids,[24] Sakas,[25] Kushanas,[26] Hunas,[27] Bactrians,[28] by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul [29] and Gilgit.[30] In Persian form, the title appears as Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam, Shao of the Kushanas and the Ssaha of Mihirakula (Huna chief).[31] The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title Shah-in-shahi ("Shaonano shao") in imitation of Achaemenid practice.[32] The Shahis of Kabul/Gandhara are generally split up into two eras—the Buddhist-Shahis and the Hindu-Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 AD.

The Gangetic Plains and Deccan

Following the demise of the Mauryan Empires the Satavahanas rose as the successor state to check and contend with the influx of the Central Asian tribes from the Northwest. The Satavahanas straddling the Deccan plateau also provided a link for transmission of Buddhism and contact between the Northern Gangetic plains and the Southern regions even as the Upanishads were gaining ground. Eventually weakened both by contention with the northwestern invaders and internal strife they broke up and gave rise to several nations around Deccan and central India regions even as the Gupta Empire arose in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and ushered in a "Golden Age" and rebirth of empire as decentralized local administrative model and the spread of Indian culture until collapse under the Huna invasions. After the fall of Gupta Empire the Gangetic region broke up into several states temporarily reunited under Harsha then giving rise to the Rajput dynasties. In the Deccan, the Chalukyas arose forming a formidable nation marking the migration of the centers of cultural and military power long held in the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the new nations forming in the southern regions of India.

The Satavahanas

Main article: Satavahana
Silver coin of king Vasishtiputra Satakarni (c. 160 AD) of the Satavahana.

The Sâtavâhana Empire started out as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire but declared independence with its decline. They were the first Indic rulers to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed and are known for their patronage of Buddhism resulting in Buddhist monuments from Ellora to Amaravati. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Gangetic plains to the southern tip of India.

They had to compete with the Sungas and then the Kanvas of Magadha to establish their rule. Later they had to contend in protecting their domain from the incursions of Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas weakened them and the empire split into smaller states.

The Kharavela

Kharavela Empire[citation needed]

Kharavela was the warrior king of Kalinga.[33] He was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian Subcontinent but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. According to the Hathigumpha inscription near Bhubaneswar, Orissa, he attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek king Demetrius to retreat to Mathura.[34]

The Kharavelan Jain kingdom had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Malay Archipelago. Even today Indians are referred to as Keling[35] in Malaysia because of this.

The Guptas

Main article: Gupta Empire
Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I (414-455).

The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian Subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. 320 AD–550 AD).[36] This period is called the Golden Age of India[37] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[38] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.[39] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[40]

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings.[41] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[42] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay Archipelago and Indochina.

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers - Chandragupta I (ca. 319–335), Samudragupta (ca. 335–376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376–415) —brought much of India under their leadership.[43] They successfully resisted the North-Western Kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.

The Vakatakas

Main article: Vakataka
The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves, built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers.

The Vakataka Empire was the contemporaries of the Gupta Empire and the successor state of the Satavahanas they formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over today's modern day states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra during the 3rd and 5th centuries. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. They were eventually overrun by the Chalukyas.

The Harsha Vardhana

Main article: Harsha

After the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the gangetic plains fractured into numerous small nations. Harsha of Kannauj was able to briefly bind them together under his rulership. Only a defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas (Pulakesi II) prevented him from expanding his reign south of the Narmada River. This unity did not last long beyond his reign and his empire fractured soon after his death in 647 AD.

The Gurjars

Main article: Gurjar

From 550 to 1018 AD, the Gurjars played a great part in history of Northern India nearly for 500 years.[44] Present day Rajasthan was under the rule of Gurjars for centuries with capital at Bhilmal (Bhinmal or Srimal), situated nearly 50 miles to the north west of Mount Abu.[44] The Gurjars of Bhilmal conquered Kannuaj on the Ganges at the beginning of 9th century and transferred their capital to Kannuaj and founded an empire which at its peak was bounded on the east by Bihar, on the west by the lost river, the Hakra, and the Arabian Sea, on the North By the Himalaya and Sutlaj, and on the South by the Jumna and Narmada.[44] The region round Broach, which was offshoot of this kingdom, was also ruled by the Gurjaras of Nandipuri (or Nadol).[45]

The Vishnukundinas

Main article: Vishnukundina

The Vishnukundina Empire was an Indian dynasty that ruled over the Deccan, Orissa and parts of South India during the 5th and 6th centuries carving land out from the Vakataka Empire. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukya, Pulakesi II. Pulakesi appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern Chalukya dynasty.

The Maitrakas

Main article: Maitraka

The Maitraka Empire ruled Gujarat in western India from the c. 475 to 767. The founder of the dynasty, Senapati (general) Bhatarka, was a military governor of Saurashtra peninsula under Gupta Empire, who had established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat approximately in the last quarter of 5th century. The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title of Senapati (general). The third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as the Maharaja.[46] King Guhasena stopped using the term Paramabhattaraka Padanudhyata along his name like his predecessors, which denotes the cessation of displaying of the nominal allegiance to the Gupta overlords. He was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title of Mahadhiraja. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I, Dharmaditya was described by Hiuen Tsang as a "monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion". Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I.[47] Virdi copperplate grant (616 CE) of Kharagraha I proves that his territories included Ujjain.

The Gurjara Pratiharas

Main article: Gurjara Pratihara

The Gurjara Pratihara Empire (Hindi: गुर्जर प्रतिहार)[48] formed an Indian dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910), it rivaled the Gupta Empire in the extent of its territory.[49]

Pointing out the importance of the Gurjara Pratihara empire in the history of India Dr. R.C. Majumdar has observed, "the Gurjara Pratihara Empire which continued in full glory for nearly a century, was the last great empire in Northern India before the Muslim conquest. This honour is accorded to the empire of Harsha by many historians of repute but without any real justification, for the Pratihara empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent rivalled the Gupta Empire and brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India. But its chief credit lies in its succecessful resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of Junaid. This was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves.

Historians of India, since the days of Eliphinstone, has wondered at slow progress of Muslim invaders in India compared to their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Now there can be little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "chief contribution of the Gurjara Pratiharas to the history of India".[50]

The Rajputs

Main article: Rajput

The Rajput were a Hindu clan who rose to power across a region stretching from the gangaetic plains to the Afghan mountains, and refer to the various dynasties of the many kingdoms in the region in the wake of the collapse of the Sassanid Empire and Gupta Empire and marks the transition of Buddhist ruling dynasties to Hindu ruling dynasties.

The Chauhans

Main article: Chauhan
Statue of Prithvi Raj Chauhan at Ajmer

The Chauhan dynasty flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries AD. It was one of the four main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others being Pratiharas, Paramaras and Chalukyas. Chauhan dynasties established themselves in several places in North India and in the state of Gujarat in Western India. They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of Rajputana, and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur) district (the Sakhambari branch remained near lake Sambhar and married into the ruling Gurjara–Pratihara, who then ruled an empire in Northern India). Chauhans adopted a political policy that saw them indulge largely in campaigns against the Chalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century they founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century captured Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their territory along the Yamuna River.

The Chauhan Kingdom became the leading state in Northern India under King Prithviraj III (1165–1192), also known as Prithvi Raj Chauhan or Rai Pithora. Prithviraj III has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted and repelled the invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at the first Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including Mewar, assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armies fled[51][52] the battle ground against Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battle of Tarain.

The Kachwaha

Main article: Kachwaha

The Kachwaha originated as tributaries of the preceding powers of the region. Some scholars point out that it was only following the downfall, in the 8th-10th century, of Kannauj (the regional seat-of-power, following the break-up of Harsha's empire), that the Kacchapaghata state emerged as a principal power in the Chambal valley of present-day Madhya Pradesh.[53]

The Paramaras

Main article: Paramara dynasty

The Paramara dynasty was an early medieval Indian dynasty who ruled over Malwa region in central India. This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c.800. The most significant ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja I who was a philosopher king and polymath. The seat of the Paramara kingdom was Dhara Nagari (the present day Dhar city in Madhya Pradesh state).[54]

The Solankis

Main article: Solanki
Modhera Sun Temple built by the Solankis.

The Solanki were Hindu Gurjar[55] Rajput clan who ruled parts of western and central India between the 10th and 13th centuries. Solankis are descended from 6th-century Badami Chalukya.[56] The name Solanki comes from Chalukya the ancient Indian dynasty. During 543-566, Pulakesi I, established the kingdom at Vatapi (present-day Badami, Bagalkot District in North Karnataka of Karnataka).[57]

Historians like Vincent Smith, Dr. K. Jamanadas and K. M. Munshi states that Solanki along with other Agnikula Kshatriyas are of Gurjar origin.[58] Dr. Dashrath Sharma states that Solankis were of Brahmin origin, though from the work of other scholars it has been shown that Solankis were descendents of the Gujjars.[55]

In Gujarat, Anhilwara (modern Siddhpur Patan) served as their capital. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and Anhilwara was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. The Solankis were patrons of the great seaside temple of Shiva at Somnath Patan in Kathiawar; Bhima Dev helped rebuild the temple after it was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026. His son, Karandev, conquered the Bhil king Ashapall or Ashaval, and after his victory established a city named Karnavati on the banks of the Sabarmati River, at the site of modern Ahmedabad.

The Tanwars (Tomara)

Main article: Tanwar

The Tanwar dynasty flourished from 8th to 12th century AD. It ruled from Delhi and Anangpal Tuar in 10th century AD was justly titled 'Paramount Soveirgn of India'.[59] This dynasty claimed to be genelogical descendants of Chandra Vanshi Pandavas and ruled small principalities and villages till Anangpal Tuar - I in 8th century expanded and established Tomar rule at Indraprastha (Delhi), the place of abode of his ancestors. They ruled from modern day Kannauj and Delhi and were later defeated by Gahadavala's at Kannauj and later by Chauhan's of Ajmer. The last Tomar King married his daughter to Chauhan ruling family and his maternal Grandson Prithviraj Chauhan was proclaimed his heir apparent. A total of 19 Tomar rulers ruled Thanesar (modern-day Haryana-Delhi). Jaipal Tuar was ruling at the time of Gaznavid invasion in 10th century.

The Palas

Main article: Pala Empire
Pala Empire under Dharmapala
Pala Empire under Devapala
Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire

Pala Empire was a Buddhist dynasty that ruled from the north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The name Pala (Modern Bengali: পাল pal) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur by a democratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Mahā Janapadas. He reigned from 750-770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal. The Buddhist dynasty lasted for four centuries (750-1120 AD) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Somapura Mahavihara built by Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent.

The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from Assam and Utkala in the east, Kamboja (modern day Afghanistan) in the north-west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Pratiharas, Gurjara and the Dravidas.

The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola and the Chalukyas. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the Varendra rebellion and extended his empire farther to Kamarupa, Orissa and Northern India.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali people reached such height of power and glory to that extent. Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar. The Palas had extensive trade as well as influence in south-east Asia. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the Sailendra Empire (present-day Malaya, Java, Sumatra).

The Candras

Main article: Candra Dynasty

The Candra Dynasty who ruled over eastern Bengal and were contemporaries of the Palas.

The Eastern Gangas

Main article: Eastern Ganga dynasty
See also: Konark Sun Temple and Jagannath Temple (Puri)
Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by King Narasimhadeva I (AD 1236-1264) also a World Heritage site.

The Eastern Ganga dynasty rulers reigned over Kalinga which consisted of the parts of the modern day Indian states of Orissa, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh from the 11th century to the early 15th century.[60] Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modern Srimukhalingam in Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh bordering Orissa. Today they are most remembered as the builders of the Konark Sun Temple a World Heritage site at Konark, Orissa. It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264). During their reign (1078-1434) a new style of temple architecture came into being, commonly called as Indo-Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078–1147). He was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous Jagannath Temple of Puri in Orissa.

King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustrious rulers such as Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264). The rulers of Eastern Ganga dynasty defended their kingdom from the constant attacks of the Muslim rulers. This kingdom prospered through trade and commerce and the wealth was mostly used in the construction of temples. The rule of the dynasty came to end under the reign of King Bhanudeva IV (1414–34), in the early 15th century.

The Senas

Main article: Sena Empire

The Palas were followed by the Sena dynasty who brought Bengal under one ruler during the 12th century. Vijay Sen the second ruler of this dynasty defeated the last Pala emperor Madanapala and established his reign. Ballal Sena introduced caste system in Bengal and made Nabadwip the capital. The fourth king of this dynasty Lakshman Sen expanded the empire beyond Bengal to Bihar, Assam, northern Orissa and probably to Varanasi. Lakshman was later defeated by the Muslims and fled to eastern Bengal were he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival of Hinduism and cultivated Sanskrit literature in India.

The Varmans

The Varman Dynasty (not to be confused with the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa) ruled over eastern Bengal and were contemporaries of the Senas.

The Northeast

The Varman dynasty of Kamarupa

Main article: Varman dynasty

The Varman dynasty was the first historical dynasty of the Kamarupa kingdom, established by Pushyavarman in the 4th century. The kingdom under the Varman rulers, especially under Kumar Bhaskara Varman, extended up to the Karatoya river in the west and Sadiya in the east and included the Sylhet division of present-day Bangladesh. This dynasty ruled from their capital in the vicinity of present-day Guwahati till the middle of the 7th century.

The Mlechchha dynasty of Kamarupa

Main article: Mlechchha dynasty

The Mlechchha dynasty succeeded the Varman dynasty in Kamarupa and ruled to the end of the 10th century. They ruled from their capital in the vicinity of the present-day Tezpur.

The Pala dynasty of Kamarupa

Main article: Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)

The Pala dynasty of Kamarupa succeeded the Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa and ruled till the end of the 12th century.

The Twipras

Main article: Twipra Kingdom

The Twipra kingdom and dynasty ruled in the Tripura region.

The South

In the first half of the millennium the South saw various smalled kingdoms rise and fall mostly independent to the turmoil in the gangetic plains and the spread of the Buddhism and Jainism to the southern tip of India. During the second half of the millennium after the fall of the Gupta Empire we see a gradual shift of the balance of power both military and cultural from the northern states to the rise of large southern states.

In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-13th centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of South Asia. Three features commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period.

  • First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of Sanskritization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order.
  • Second was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments.
  • Third, because of the seesawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation.

Peninsular India was involved in an 8th-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556–757), the Pallavas (300–888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas (753-973). Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms.

The emergence of the Rashtrakutas heralded a new era in the history of South India. The idiom of a Pan-Indian empire had moved to south. South Indian kingdoms had hitherto ruled areas only up to and south of the Narmada River. It was the Rashtrakutas who first forged north to the Gangetic plains and successfully contested their might against the Palas of Bengal and the Rajput Prathiharas of Gujarat.

Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs.

The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronized all three religions - Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Mumbai or Bombay, as it was known formerly), Ajanta, and Ellora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami in Karnataka and Mahaballipuram and Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers.

By the mid-7th century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support.

Although Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of vernacular literature in all four major Dravidian languages: Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of Shaivism and Vaishnavism—Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the 12th century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries.

The Sangam Era Kingdoms

Main articles: Sangam and Ancient Tamil country
South India in Sangam Age

Farther south were three ancient Tamil states - Chera (on the west), Chola (on the east), and Pandya (in the south) —. They were involved in internecine warfare seeking regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as important Indian kingdoms beyond the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient Tamil literature, known as Sangam (academy) works, provides much useful information about life in these kingdoms in the era 300 BC to 200 AD. There is clear evidence of encroachment by Aryan traditions from the north into a predominantly indigenous Dravidian culture in transition.

Dravidian social order was based on different ecoregions rather than on the Aryan varna paradigm, although the Brahmans had a high status at a very early stage. Segments of society were characterized by matriarchy and matrilineal succession—which survived well into the 19th century—cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. Tribal chieftains emerged as "kings" just as people moved from pastoralism toward agriculture sustained by irrigation based on rivers by small-scale water tanks (as man-made ponds are called in India) and wells, as well as maritime trade with Rome and Southeast Asia.

Discoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to extensive South Indian links with the outside world. As with Patliputra in the northeast and Taxila in the northwest (in modern Pakistan), the city of Madurai, the capital of the Pandyan Kingdom (in modern Tamil Nadu), was the center of intellectual and literary activity. Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses to composed anthologies of poems and expositions on Tamil grammar. By the end of the 1st century BC, South Asia was crisscrossed by overland trade routes, which facilitated the movements of Buddhist and Jain missionaries and other travelers and opened the area to a synthesis of many cultures.

The Cheras

Main article: Chera Empire

From early pre-historic times, Tamil Nadu was the home of the four Tamil states of the Chera, Chola, Pandya and Pallavas. The oldest extant literature, dated between 300 BC and 600 AD mentions the exploits of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Cherans, who spoke Tamil language ruled from the capital of Karur in the west and traded extensively with West Asian kingdoms.

An unknown dynasty called Kalabhras invaded and displaced the three Tamil kingdoms between the 4th and the 7th centuries. This is referred to as the Dark Age in Tamil history. They were eventually expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas.

The Kalabhras

Main article: Kalabhras

Little of their origins or the time during which they ruled is known beyond that they ruled over the entirety of the southern tip of India during the 3rd to the 6th century, overcoming the Sangam era kingdoms. The appear to be patrons of Jainism and Buddhism as the only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in the many Buddhist and Jain literature of the time. They were contemporaries of the Kadambas and the Western Ganga Dynasty. They were overcome by the rise of the Pallavas and the resurgence of the Pandyan Kingdom.

The Kadambas

Main article: Kadambas
Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli

The Kadamba Dynasty (Kannada: ಕದಂಬರು) (345–525 CE) was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into Goa and Hanagal. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, they ruled large parts of Karnataka. During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the Mauryas, Satavahanas and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regional language.

The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. One of his successors, Kakusthavarma was a powerful ruler and even the kings of imperial Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital relationships with his family, giving a fair indication of the sovereign nature of their kingdom. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy.

The Western Gangas

Statue of Bahubali as Gommateshvara built by the Western Ganga is one of the largest monolithic statues in the world.
Main article: Western Gangas

The Western Ganga Dynasty (350–1000 CE) (Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ) was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas, who in later centuries ruled over modern Orissa. The general belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava dynasty of South India, a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudragupta. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later moving their capital to Talakad on the banks of the Kaveri in modern Mysore district.

After the rise of the imperial Chalukya dynasty of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in the Deccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region.

Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towards Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundaraya's writing, Chavundaraya Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on subjects ranging from religious topics to elephant management.

The Badami Chalukyas

Main article: Chalukya Empire
See also: Badami Chalukya Architecture, Pattadakal, Badami Cave Temples, and Aihole

The Chalukya Empire, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas.[61][62] [63][64][65] They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration.[66][67] In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakesi I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power.[68] During the rule of Pulakesi II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634,[69][70] proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakesi II.[71][72][73][74][75]

Badami Cave Temples No 3.(Vishnu)

These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakesi II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of Bengal in present day Orissa. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakesi II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River.[76] Pulakesi II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.[77][78] Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors.[79] However, the continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat,[80] conquered and plundered the capital of Pulakesi II who may have died in battle.[80][81] A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.[82][83][84][85] He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.[86]

The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind.[87] More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.[88] The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments.[87] Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them. [89] [90] Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.[91]

The Pallavas

Main article: Pallava Empire
Shore Temple in Mamallapuram built by the Pallavas. (c. eighth century C.E.)

The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century.[92] It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana Empire.[93] After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who ruled over the Deccan. It was around 550 AD under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule.[94] Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty.[95]

The Eastern Chalukyas

Main article: Eastern Chalukyas

Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 CE when the Vengi kingdom merged with the Chola empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 CE, when the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near Eluru of the West Godavari district end later changed to Rajamahendravaram (Rajamundry).

Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami). Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerful Cholas and Western Chalukyas over the control of the strategic Vengi country. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence of Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can be said to be the golden period of Andhra history.

The Pandyas

Main article: Pandyan Empire

Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. As well as contacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence.[96] Temples like Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan Temple architecture.[97][98] The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.

The Rashtrakutas

Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire
See also: Rashtrakuta literature, Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta, Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta, and Ellora Caves
Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE.
Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves

In the middle of 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).[99][100] Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district).[101][102] Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.[103][104][105][106][107]

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha.[108] The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains.[109] Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.[110] The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River.[111] Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.[112][113][114] The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace loving nature,[112] he has been compared to emperor Ashoka.[115] The rule of Indra III in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.[116] Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south.[117]

An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world.[118] Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise.[119] The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.[120] While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement.[121] In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[122]

The Western Chalukyas

Main article: Western Chalukya Empire
See also: Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire and Western Chalukya Architecture

In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated.[123][124] Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific.[106][125][126][127] Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973.[128][129][130] This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River–Krishna River doab region in Vengi. Somesvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats[131][132] while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions.[133] For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).[134]

Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art.

In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas.[135] His fifty year reign was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".[136] His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently.[135] Some of the well known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri.[137] At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history.[138][139] Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.[140][141] With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra).[142] Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.[143] Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital Kalyani.[144] His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.[145]

The Yadavas

Main article: Yadava dynasty

The Seuna, Sevuna or Yadava dynasty (Marathi: देवगिरीचे यादव, Kannada: ಸೇವುಣರು) (850–1334) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri (present-day Daulatabad in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. The foundations of Marathi culture was laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities of Maharashtra's social life developed during their rule.[146]

The Kakatiyas

Main article: Kakatiya dynasty

The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 to 1323. They were one of the great Telugu kingdoms that lasted for centuries.

The Kalachuris

Main article: Kalachuri
Sangamanatha temple at Kudalasangama, North Karnataka

Kalachuri Empire (Kannada: ಕಲಚೂರಿ) is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (west Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan) and were called Chedi or Haihaya (Heyheya) (northern branch)[147] and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of Karnataka. They are disparately placed in time and space. Apart from the dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is little in known sources to connect them.

The earliest known Kalachuri family (550–620 AD) ruled over northern Maharashtra, Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area.[148]

Southern Kalachuris (Kannada: ದಕ್ಷಿಣ ಕಲಚೂರಿ) (1130–1184) at their peak ruled parts of the Deccan extending over regions of present day North Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 AD. They traced their origins to Krishna who was the conqueror of Kalinjar and Dahala in Madhya Pradesh. It is said that Bijjala a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over Karnataka. He wrested power from the Chalukya king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 AD, the Chalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from a the socio - religious movement point of view; a new sect called the Lingayat or Virashaiva sect was founded during these times.[148] A unique and purely native form of Kannada literature-poetry called the Vachanas was also born during this time. The writers of Vachanas were called Vachanakaras (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita's Chennabasavapurana, Dharani Pandita's Bijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni's Bijjalarayapurana were also written.

Northern Kalachuris ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in the 12th–13th centuries.

The Hoysalas

Main article: Hoysala Empire
See also: Literature in the Hoysala Empire, Economy of the Hoysala Empire, and Hoysala architecture
Shilabalika, Chennakeshava temple, Belur.

The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region).[149] In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu.[150][151] Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas).[149][152][153][154][155][156] With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), Shatpadi (seven line) etc. became widely accepted.[106][157][158][159] The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas,[160] culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu.[161] Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116.[162][163] Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi).[164] The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital.[150] This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.[165][166]

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in 1343.[167] This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in the Tungabhadra region in present day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital.[168]

The Cholas

Main article: Chola Empire
See also: Early Cholas, Medieval Cholas, and Later Cholas
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.

By the 9th century, under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas rose as a notable power in south Asia. The Chola Empire stretched as far as Bengal. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km² (1,389,968 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular South India and parts of the Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam,[169] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated Mahipala, the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples. Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is an UNESCO Heritage Site under "Great Living Chola Temples."[170] Another example is the Chidambaram Temple in the heart of the temple town of Chidambaram.

See also

Middle kingdoms of India
Timeline: Northwestern India Northern India Southern India

 6th century BCE
 5th century BCE
 4th century BCE

 3rd century BCE
 2nd century BCE

 1st century BCE
 1st century CE


 2nd century
 3rd century
 4th century
 5th century
 6th century
 7th century
 8th century
 9th century
10th century
11th century

(Persian rule)
(Greek conquests)






(Islamic conquests)

(Islamic Empire)















Footnotes

  1. ^ Cunningham, (1888) p. 33.
  2. ^ a b Cunningham (1888), p. 33.
  3. ^ Barstow (1928), reprint 1985, pp. 105-135, 63, 155, 152, 145.
  4. ^ Latif (1984), p. 56.
  5. ^ As in other compounds such as "French-Canadian", "African-American", "Indo-European" etc..., the area of origin usually comes first, and the area of arrival comes second, so that "Greco-Indian" is normally a more accurate nomenclature than "Indo-Greek". The latter however has become the general usage, especially since the publication of Narain's book "The Indo-Greeks".
  6. ^ Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius 11.34, a Magnesian Greek. His son, Demetrius I, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek ethnicity at least by his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for the same Demetrius with a daughter of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (who had some Persian descent). Polybius 11.34. The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear ("Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India". W. W. Tarn. Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 22 (1902), pages 268–293). For example, Artemidoros (80 BC) may have been of Indo-Scythian ascendency. Some level of inter-marriage may also have occurred, as exemplified by Alexander III of Macedon (who married Roxana of Bactria) or Seleucus (who married Apama).
  7. ^ Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ff. It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a polis or with a Hippodamian plan.
  8. ^ "Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dynasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."
  9. ^ "A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130
  10. ^ "When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 278.
  11. ^ See: Notes on the Races, Tribes, and Castes inhabiting the Province of Oudh, Lucknow, Oudh Government Press 1868, p 4; The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Studies, 1972, p 135, Dr M. R. Singh; Sacred Books of the East, XXV, Intr. p cxv, Rapson, Coins of Ancient India, p 37, n.2.
  12. ^ The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Studies, 1972, p 135, M. R. Singh; Sacred Books of the East, XXV, Intr. p cxv; Rapson, Coins of Ancient India, p 37, n.2.
  13. ^ Agarwala (1954), p. 444.
  14. ^ Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka, in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas. Source: "A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc..." Rapson, p ciii
  15. ^ Ptolemy, Geographia, Chap 7
  16. ^ Hill (2009), pp. 29, 31.
  17. ^ Hill (2004)
  18. ^ Thakur Deshraj, Jat Itihas (Hindi), Maharaja Suraj Mal Smarak Shiksha Sansthan, Delhi, 1934, 2nd edition 1992
  19. ^ as in: Rajatarangini, IV, 140-43, Kalahana.
  20. ^ as in inscriptions: See: Hindu Sahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, 1972, p 111, Yogendra Mishra.
  21. ^ as in: Tarikh-al-Hind, trans. E. C. Sachau, 1888/1910, vol ii, pp 10, Abu Rihan Alberuni; Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: The Forgotten City of Gandhara, p. 1. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.
  22. ^ a b Shahi Family. Encyclop¿dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop¿dia Britannica Online. 16 Oct. 2006 [1].
  23. ^ Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: The Forgotten City of Gandhara, p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.
  24. ^ Darius used titles like "Kshayathiya, Kshayathiya Kshayathiyanam" etc.
  25. ^ Sakas used titles like "Sahi and Sahanusahi".
  26. ^ The Kushanas used the grandiloquent title like "daivaputra-sahi.sahanu.sahi", "Shaonano shao" & "Shao".
  27. ^ The Hunas had the title " Shâhi" .
  28. ^ Title "Shahi" appears on Indo-Bactrian coins.
  29. ^ "Shahi of Kalhana's Rajatrangini, Shahiya of Alberuni and Sahi of the inscriptions".
  30. ^ The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, pp 1, 45-46, 48, 80, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan - Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.
  31. ^ Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1954, pp 112 ff; The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, p 46, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan - Indo-Scythians.
  32. ^ India, A History, 2001, p 203, John Keay.
  33. ^ Agrawal, Sadananda (2000): Śrī Khāravela, Sri Digambar Jain Samaj, Cuttack, Orissa
  34. ^ Shashi Kant (2000): The Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela and the Bhabru Edict of Ashoka, D K Printworld Pvt. Ltd.
  35. ^ Keling
  36. ^ India - Historical Setting - The Classical Age - Gupta and Harsha
  37. ^ http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html
  38. ^ The Age of the Guptas and After
  39. ^ Gupta Empire in India, art in the Gupta empire, Indian history - India
  40. ^ Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  41. ^ Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  42. ^ The Gupta Empire of India | Chandragupta I | Samudragupta
  43. ^ Trade | The Story of India - Photo Gallery | PBS
  44. ^ a b c The Gurjaras of Rajputana and Kannauj, Vincent A. Smith, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Jan., 1909), pp. 53-75
  45. ^ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar; Achut Dattatrya Pusalker, A. K. Majumdar, Dilip Kumar Ghose, Vishvanath Govind Dighe (1977). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 66. 
  46. ^ Roychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India, University of Calcutta, Calcutta, pp.553-4
  47. ^ Mahajan V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). Ancient India, S.Chand & Company, New Delhi, ISBN 81 219 0887 6, pp.594-6
  48. ^ Panchānana Rāya (1939). A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.. I. M. H. Press. p. 125. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar&dq=Gurjar+parihar&cd=1. 
  49. ^ Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty definition of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty in the Free Online Encyclopedia
  50. ^ Radhey Shyam Chaurasia (2002). History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 207 to 208. ISBN 81-269-0027-X, ISBN 978-81-269-0027-5. 
  51. ^ Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526) - I By Satish Chandra
  52. ^ A History of India By August Friedrich Rudolf Hoernle, Herbert Alick Stark
  53. ^ Stella Snead - Guardian Lion
  54. ^ Agnivansha: Paramara Dynasty
  55. ^ a b Mohanty, P.K. (2006). Encyclopaedia of Scheduled Tribes In India. 5. Gyan Publishing House. p. 186. ISBN 8182050529. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=DfZBc1Gy9g4C&pg=PA186&. "Dr. Dashrath Sharma ascribes the origin of the Solankis, Parmars, the Guhis/Gohils and Chauhans to the Brahmins. However, we know from the works of other scholars that the Solanki and Parmar were actually descendents of the Gujjars who came to India from pre-islamic Persia in large numbers." 
  56. ^ ""CHALUKYA / SOLANKI" DYNASTY". http://www.rajput.us/page15.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-31. [dead link]
  57. ^ The Chalukyas of Gujarat were of Karnataka origin, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), p8
  58. ^ Rose, Horace Arthur; Ibbetson (1990). Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province. Asian Educational Services. p. 300. ISBN 8120605055. 
  59. ^ Col. Todd,Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol 1
  60. ^ Ganga Dynasty www.britannica.com.
  61. ^ N. Laxminarayana Rao and S. C. Nandinath in Kamath 2001, p57
  62. ^ Keay (2000), p168
  63. ^ Jayasimha and Ranaraga, ancestors of Pulakesi I, were administrative officers in the Badami province under the Kadambas (Fleet in Kanarese Dynasties, p343), (Moraes 1931, p51)
  64. ^ Thapar (2003), p328
  65. ^ Quote:"They belonged to the Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada" (Sen 1999, p360); Kamath (2001), p58,
  66. ^ Considerable number of their records are in Kannada (Kamath 2001, p67)
  67. ^ 7th century Chalukya inscriptions call Kannada the natural language (Thapar 2003, p345)
  68. ^ Sen (1999), p360
  69. ^ In this composition, the poet deems himself an equal to Sanskrit scholars of lore like Bharavi and Kalidasa (Sastri 1955, p312
  70. ^ Kamath (2001), p59
  71. ^ Keay (2000), p169
  72. ^ Sen (1999), pp361–362
  73. ^ Kamath (2001), pp59–60
  74. ^ Some of these kingdoms may have submitted out of fear of Harshavardhana of Kannauj (Majumdar in Kamat 2001, p59)
  75. ^ The rulers of Kosala were the Panduvamshis of South Kosala (Sircar in Kamath 2001, pp59)
  76. ^ Keay (2000), p170
  77. ^ Kamath (2001), pp58
  78. ^ Ramesh 1984, p76
  79. ^ From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p60)
  80. ^ a b Smith, Vincent Arthur (1904). The Early History of India. The Clarendon press. pp. 325–327. 
  81. ^ Sen (1999), p362
  82. ^ Thapar (2003), p331, p345
  83. ^ Sastri (1955) p140
  84. ^ Ramesh (1984), pp159–160
  85. ^ Sen (1999), p364
  86. ^ Ramesh (1984), p159
  87. ^ a b Hardy (1995), p65–66
  88. ^ Over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone, Michael D. Gunther, 2002. "Monuments of India". http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
  89. ^ Arthikaje, Mangalore. "History of Karnataka—Chalukyas of Badami". © 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
  90. ^ The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace (K.V. Sounderrajan in Kamath 2001, p68
  91. ^ Kamath (2001), p68
  92. ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 91–92
  93. ^ Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., pp 68
  94. ^ [2][dead link]
  95. ^ Kamil V. Zvelebil (1987). "The Sound of the One Hand", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 107, No. 1, p. 125-126.
  96. ^ [3][dead link]
  97. ^ 'Advanced History of India', K.A.Nilakanta Sastri (1970)p. 181-182, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
  98. ^ www.whatsindia.org
  99. ^ From the Rashtrakuta inscriptions (Kamath 2001, p57, p64)
  100. ^ The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that feudatory Dantidurga defeated the Chalukyas and humbled their great Karnatik army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas) (Reu 1933, p54)
  101. ^ A capital which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)
  102. ^ A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)
  103. ^ Altekar (1934), pp411–413
  104. ^ Chopra (2003), p87, part1; Literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered during the Rashtrakuta rule (Kamath 2001, p73, pp 88–89)
  105. ^ Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities (Thapar 2003, p334)
  106. ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p68, p17–21
  107. ^ Reu (1933), pp37–38
  108. ^ Chopra (2003), p89, part1; His victories were a "digvijaya" gaining only fame and booty in that region (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
  109. ^ Chopra (2003), p90, part1
  110. ^ Keay (2000), p199)
  111. ^ Kamath 2001, p76
  112. ^ a b Chopra (2003), p91, part1
  113. ^ Kavirajamarga in Kannada and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit (Reu 1933, p38)
  114. ^ Kamath (2001), p90
  115. ^ Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
  116. ^ Chopra (2003), p92, part1; Altekar in Kamath 2001, p81
  117. ^ Chopra (2003), p92–93, part1
  118. ^ Reu (1933), p39
  119. ^ Murujul Zahab by Al Masudi (944), Kitabul Akalim by Al Istakhri (951), Ashkal-ul-Bilad by Ibn Haukal (976) (Reu 1933, p41–42)
  120. ^ From the Sanjan inscriptions, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/. Retrieved 2006-12-20. 
  121. ^ Keay (2000), p200
  122. ^ Vijapur, Raju S.. "Reclaiming past glory". Deccan Herald. Spectrum. http://www.archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp. Retrieved 2007-02-27. 
  123. ^ Chopra (2003), p137, part1
  124. ^ Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar and Gopal B.R in (Kamath 2001, p100)
  125. ^ Sen (1999), p. 393
  126. ^ Sastri (1955), pp356–358; Kamath (2001), p114
  127. ^ More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI than to any other king prior to the 12th century, Kamat, Jyotsna. "Chalukyas of Kalyana". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-24. 
  128. ^ From the 957 and 965 records (Kamath 2001, p101)
  129. ^ Sastri 1955, p162
  130. ^ Tailapa II was helped in this campaign by the Kadambas of Hanagal (Moraes 1931, pp 93–94)
  131. ^ Ganguli in Kamath 2001, p103
  132. ^ Sastri (1955), p167–168
  133. ^ Kamath (2001), p104
  134. ^ Sastri (1955), p164, p174; The Cholas occupied Gangavadi from 1004–1114 (Kamath 2001, p118)
  135. ^ a b Chopra (2003), p139, part1
  136. ^ Thapar, 2003, pp 468–469
  137. ^ Chopra (2003), p139, part 1
  138. ^ Poet Bilhana in his Sanskrit work wrote "Rama Rajya" regarding his rule, poet Vijnaneshwara called him "A king like none other" (Kamath 2001, p106)
  139. ^ Sastri (1955), p6
  140. ^ Quote:"Of the city of Kalyana, situated in the north of Karnataka nothing is left, but a fabulous revival in temple building during the 11th century in central Karnataka testifies to the wealth during Kalyan Chalukya rule"(Foekema (1996), p14)
  141. ^ Kamath (2001), p107
  142. ^ From the 1142 and 1147 records, Kamath (2001), p108
  143. ^ Chopra (2003), p139, part1; From the Chikkalagi records (Kamath 2001, p108)
  144. ^ Chopra (2003), p140, part1; Kamath (2001) p109
  145. ^ Marathiworld.com-history
  146. ^ "Kalachuri Dynasty". http://gloriousindia.com/history/kalachuri_dynasty.html. Retrieved 2009-03-31. 
  147. ^ a b Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani.
  148. ^ a b Sen (1999), p498
  149. ^ a b Sen (1999), p499
  150. ^ Vishnuvardhana made many military conquests later to be further expanded by his successors into one of the most powerful empires of South India—William Coelho. He was the true maker of the Hoysala kingdom—B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p124–126
  151. ^ B.L.Rice in Kamath (2001), p123
  152. ^ Keay (2000), p251
  153. ^ Thapar (2003), p367
  154. ^ Kamath (2001), p123
  155. ^ Natives of south Karnataka (Chopra, 2003, p150 Part1)
  156. ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p59
  157. ^ Kamath (2001), pp132–134
  158. ^ Sastri (1955), p359, p361
  159. ^ Sastri (1955), p427
  160. ^ Sen (1999), pp500–501
  161. ^ Foekema (1996), p14
  162. ^ Kamath (2001), p124
  163. ^ The most outstanding of the Hoysala kings according to Barrett and William Coelho in Kamath (2001), p126
  164. ^ B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p126
  165. ^ Keay (2000), p252
  166. ^ Sen (1999), p500
  167. ^ Two theories exist about the origin of Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. One states that they were Kannadiga commanders of the Hoysala army and another that they were Telugu speakers and commanders of the earlier Kakatiya Kingdom (Kamath 2001, pp 159–160)
  168. ^ http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php
  169. ^ Great Living Chola Temples.

References

  • Agarwala, V. S. (1954). India as Known to Panini.
  • Barstow, A.E., The Sikhs: An Ethnology, Reprinted by B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, India, 1985, first published in 1928.
  • Alexander Cunningham (1888) Coins of the Indo-Scythians, Sakas, and Kushans, Reprint: Indological Book House, Varanasi, India, 1971.
  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.Weilue: The Peoples of the West
  • Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.
  • Latif, S.M., (1891) History of the Panjab, Reprinted by Progressive Books, Lahore, Pakistan, 1984.

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