Kushan Empire

Infobox Former Country
native_name =
conventional_long_name = Kushan Empire
common_name = Kushan Empire
continent = Asia
region =
country =
era = Antiquity
status =
event_start = Kujula Kadphises unites Yuezhi tribes into a confederation
year_start = 60s
date_start =
event1 =
date_event1 =
event_end = Subjugated by the Gupta Empire
year_end = 375
date_end =
p1 = Yuezhi
flag_p1 =
s1 = Gupta Empire
flag_s1 =


flag_type =

---

image_map_caption = Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription. ["The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, up to which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself." "Ancient Indian Inscriptions", S. R. Goyal, p. 93. See also the analysis of Sims-Williams and J.Cribb, who had a central role in the decipherment: "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in "Silk Road Art and Archaeology" No4, 1995-1996. Also Mukherjee B.N. "The Great Kushanan Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin.]
capital = Begram
Taxila
Mathura
common_languages = Bactrian
Greek
Pali
Sanskrit, Prakrit
Possibly Aramaic
religion = Central Asian Cults
Zoroastrianism
Greco-Buddhism
Buddhism
Ancient Greek religion
Hinduism
government_type = Monarchy
leader1 = Kujula Kadphises
year_leader1 = 60-80
leader2 = Kipunada
year_leader2 = 350-375
title_leader = Emperor
legislature =

The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith, circa 105–250 CE, extended from what is now Tajikistan to Afghanistan, Pakistan and down into the Ganges river valley in northern India. The empire was created by the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi confederation, believed to have been an Indo-European people [ [http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/kush/hd_kush.htm Kushan Empire (ca. 2nd century B.C.–3rd century A.D.) | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art ] ] from the eastern Tarim Basin, China, possibly related to the Tocharians. They had diplomatic contacts with Rome, Persia and China, and for several centuries were at the center of exchange between the East and the West.

Origins

[
tamgas] Chinese sources describe the "Guishuang" (Ch: 貴霜), "i.e." the "Kushans", as one of the five aristocratic tribes of the Yuezhi, also spelled Yueh-chi, [For romanized spelling Yueh-chi see: Keay, p. 110.] (Ch: 月氏), a loose confederation of supposedly Indo-European peoples. [ [http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/kush/hd_kush.htm Kushan Empire (ca. 2nd century B.C.–3rd century A.D.) | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art ] ] The Yuezhi are also generally considered as the easternmost speakers of Indo-European languages, who had been living in the arid grasslands of eastern Central Asia, in modern-day Xinjiang and Gansu, possibly speaking versions of the Tocharian language, until they were driven west by the Xiongnu in 176–160 BCE. The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history as Xiūmì (Ch: 休密), Guishuang (Ch: 貴霜), Shuangmi (Ch: 雙靡), Xidun (Ch: 肸頓), and Dūmì (Ch: 都密).

Historian John Keay contextualizes the movements of the Kushan within a larger setting of mass migrations taking place in the region:

The Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom of Greco-Bactria, in the Bactrian territory (northernmost Afghanistan and Uzbekistan) around 135 BCE. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of the Hindu Kush and the Indus basin (in present day Pakistan), occupying the western part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

Early Kushans

Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushan in the area of Bactria and Sogdiana. Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin, Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace of Khalchayan. Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers [Lebedynsky, p. 62.] , and significantly men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan [Lebedynsky, p. 15.] (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia). On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such as Ai-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses. The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler was Heraios. He calls himself a "Tyrant" on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation. He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises.

A multi-cultural Empire

In the following century, the "Guishuang" (Ch: 貴霜) gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and welded them into a tight confederation under "yabgu" (Commander) Kujula Kadphises. The name "Guishuang" was adopted in the West and modified into "Kushan" to designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call them "Yuezhi".

Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scythian tribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally known as Gandhara (An area lying primarily in Pakistan's Pothowar, and Northwest Frontier Provinces region but going in an arc to include Kabul valley and part of Qandahar in Afghanistan) and established twin capitals near present-day Kabul and Peshawar then known as Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.

The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria. They adapted the Greek alphabet (often corrupted) to suit their own language (with the additional development of the letter Þ "sh", as in "Kushan") and soon began minting coinage on the Greek model. On their coins they used Greek language legends combined with Pali legends (in the Kharoshthi script), until the first few years of the reign of Kanishka. After that date, they used Kushan language legends (in an adapted Greek script), combined with legends in Greek (Greek script) and legends in Pali (Kharoshthi script).

The Kushans are believed to have been predominantly Zoroastrian and later Buddhist as well. However, from the time of Wima Takto, many Kushans started adopting aspects of Indian culture. Like the Egyptians they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek Culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, becoming at least partly Hellenised. The first great Kushan emperor Wima Kadphises may have embraced Saivism, as surmised by coins minted during the period. The following Kushan emperors represented a wide variety of faiths including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and possibly Saivism.

The rule of the Kushans linked the seagoing trade of the Indian Ocean with the commerce of the Silk Road through the long-civilized Indus Valley. At the height of the dynasty, the Kushans loosely oversaw a territory that extended to the Aral Sea through present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India.

The loose unity and comparative peace of such a vast expanse encouraged long-distance trade, brought Chinese silks to Rome, and created strings of flourishing urban centers.

Territorial expansion

Direct archaeological evidence of a Kushan rule of long duration is basically available in an area stretching from Surkh Kotal, Begram, the summer capital of the Kushans, Peshawar the capital under Kanishka I, Taxila and Mathura, the winter capital of the Kushans. [Rosenfield, p. 41.]

Other areas of probable rule include Khwarezm (Russian archaeological findings) [Rosenfield, p. 41.] Kausambi (excavations of the Allahabad University), [Rosenfield, p. 41.] Sanchi and Sarnath (inscriptions with names and dates of Kushan kings), [Rosenfield, p. 41.] Malwa and Maharashtra, [For "Malwa and Maharashtra, for which it is speculated that the Kushans had an alliance with the Western Kshatrapas", see: Rosenfield, p. 41.] Orissa (imitation of Kushan coins, and large Kushan hoards). [Rosenfield, p. 41.]

The recently discovered Rabatak inscription tends to confirm large Kushan dominions in the heartland of India. The lines 4 to 7 of the inscription [For a translation of the full text of the Rabatak inscription see: Mukherjee, B.N., "The Great Kushana Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin, Calcutta, 1995. This translation is quoted in: Goyal (2005), p.88.] describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka, among which six names are identifiable: Ujjain, Kundina, Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra, and Champa (although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it). [For quotation: "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, up to which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself."see: Goyal, p. 93.] [See also the analysis of Sims-Williams and J. Cribb, specialists of the field, who had a central role in the decipherment: "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in "Silk Road Art and Archaeology" No. 4, 1995-1996. pp.75-142.] [cite web
last = Sims-Williams
first = Nicholas
authorlink = Nicholas Sims-Williams
coauthors =
title = Bactrian Documents from Ancient Afghanistan
work =
publisher =
date =
url = http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html
format =
doi =
accessdate = 2007-05-24 ] Northward, in the 2nd century CE, the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into the Tarim Basin, seemingly the original ground of their ancestors the Yuezhi, where they had various contacts with the Chinese. Both archaeological findings and literary evidence suggest Kushan rule, in Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan. [Rosenfield, p. 41.]

As late as the 3rd century CE, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated at Bodh Gaya together with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period. [British Museum display, Asian Art room.]

Main Kushan rulers

Kujula Kadphises (30–80)

According to the "Hou Hanshu": "the prince (xihou) of Guishuang (Badakhshan and the adjoining territories north of the Oxus), named Kujula Kadphises (Ch: 丘就却, "Qiujiuque") attacked and exterminated the four other princes (xihou). He set himself up as king of a kingdom called Guishuang." [Hill, John E. 2004. "The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html] ]

He invaded Anxi (Parthia) and took the Gaofu (Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda, and Jibin (Kapisha-Gandhara). Qiujiuque (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died."

These conquests probably took place sometime between 45 and 60, and laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded by his descendants.

Kujula issued an extensive series of coins and fathered at least two sons, unicode|Sadaṣkaṇa (who is known from only two inscriptions, especially the Rabatak inscription, and apparently never have ruled), and seemingly Vima Taktu.

Kujula Kadphises was the great grandfather of Kanishka.

Vima Taktu (80–105)

[Vima Takto|Vima Takt [u] (or Tak [to] , Ancient Chinese: 阎膏珍 "Yangaozhen" ) is not mentioned in the Rabatak inscription (Sadashkana is instead. See also the reference to Sims-William’s article below). He was the predecessor of Vima Kadphises, and Kanishka I. He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent. The "Hou Hanshu" says:

:"His [Kujula Kadphises'] son, Yangaozhen (Vima Taktu), became king in his place. He conquered Tianzhu (Northwestern India) and installed a General to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang (Kushan) king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi." [Hill, John E. 2004. "The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html] ]

Vima Kadphises (105–127)

Vima Kadphises (Kushan language: Οοημο Καδφισης) was a Kushan emperor from around 90–100 CE, the son of Sadashkana and the grandson of Kujula Kadphises, and the father of Kanishka I, as detailed by the Rabatak inscription.

Vima Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Afghanistan and north-west India. He issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He was the first to introduce gold coinage in India, in addition to the existing copper and silver coinage.

Kanishka I (127–147)

The rule of Kanishka, fifth Kushan king, who flourished for at least 28 years from c. 127. Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription::"In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundinya< Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and so long unto (i.e. as far as) the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa)." Rabatak inscription, Lines 4–6.

His territory was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (now Peshawar in northern Pakistan) and Mathura, in northern India. He is also credited (along with Raja Dab) for building the massive, ancient Fort at Bathinda (Qila Mubarak), in the modern city of Bathinda, Indian Punjab.

The Kushans also had a summer capital in Bagram (then known as Kapisa), where the "Begram Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found. According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises, the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises. Kanishka’s era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 on the basis of Harry Falk’s ground-breaking research. [Falk, Harry. 2001. "The yuga of Sphujiddhvaja and the era of the Kuşâņas." "Silk Road Art and Archaeology VII", pp. 121–136.] [Falk, Harry. 2004. "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta records." Harry Falk. "Silk Road Art and Archaeology X" , pp. 167–176.] Kanishka’s era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.

Vāsishka

Vāsishka was a Kushan emperor, who seems to have a short reign following Kanishka. His rule is recorded as far south as Sanchi (near Vidisa), where several inscriptions in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (The Sanchi inscription of "Vaksushana" – i. e. Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (The Sanchi inscription of Vasaska – i. e. Vasishka) of the Kanishka era.

Huvishka (140–183)

Huvishka (Kushan: Οοηϸκι, "Ooishki") was a Kushan emperor from the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 140 CE) until the succession of Vasudeva I about forty years later. His rule was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the Empire. In particular he devoted time and effort early in his reign to the exertion of greater control over the city of Mathura.

Vasudeva I (191–225)

Vasudeva I (Kushan: Βαζοδηο "Bazodeo", Chinese: 波調 "Bodiao") was the last of the "Great Kushans." Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishka’s era suggest his reign extended from at least 191 to 225 CE. He was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the Sassanids as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of the Indo-Sassanids or Kushanshahs from around 240 CE.

Kushan deities

The Kushan religious pantheon is extremely varied, as revealed by their coins and their seals, on which more than 30 different gods appear, belonging to the Hellenistic, the Iranian, and to a lesser extent the Indian world. Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on early coins. During Kanishka's reign, the language of the coinage changes to Bactrian (though it remained in Greek script for all kings). After Huvishka, only two divinities appear on the coins: "Ardoxsho" and " Oesho " (see details below).

Representation of entities from Greek mythology and Hellenistic syncretism are:
* Ηλιος (Helios), Ηφαηστος (Hephaistos), Σαληνη (Selene), Ανημος (Anemos). Further, the coins of Huvishka also portray two demi-gods: "erakilo" Heracles, and "sarapo" Sarapis.

The Indic entities represented on coinage include:
* Βοδδο ("boddo", Buddha)
* Μετραγο Βοδδο ("metrago boddo", bodhisattava Maitreya)
* Mαασηνo ("maaseno", Mahasena)
* Σκανδo koμαρo ("skando komaro", Skanda Kumara)
* Ϸακαμανο Βοδδο ("shakamano boddho", Shakyamuni Buddha)

The Iranic entities depicted on coinage include:
* Αρδοχϸο ("ardoxsho", Ashi Vanghuhi)
* A?αειχ?o ("ashaeixsho", Asha Vahishta)
* Αθϸο ("athsho", Atar)
* Φαρρο ("pharro", Khwarenah)
* Λροοασπο ("lrooaspa", Drvaspa)
* Μαναοβαγο, ("manaobago", Vohu Manah)
* Μαο ("mao", Mah)
* Μιθρο, Μιιρο, Μιορο, Μιυρο ("mithro" and variants, Mithra)
* Μοζδοοανο ("mozdooano", Mazda *vana "Mazda the victorious?")
* Νανα, Ναναια, Ναναϸαο (variations of pan-Asiatic "nana", Sogdian "nny", in a Zoroastrian context Aredvi Sura Anahita)
* Οαδο ("oado" Vata)
* Oαxϸo ("oaxsho", "Oxus")
* Ooρoμoζδο ("ooromozdo", Ahura Mazda)
* Οραλαγνο ("orlagno", Verethragna)
* Τιερο ("tiero", Tir)