Saffron

Saffron
For other uses, see Saffron (disambiguation).
Saffron crocus
A single shell-shaped violet flower is in sharp centre focus amdist a blurred daytime and overcast garden backdrop of soil, leaves, and leaf litter. Four narrow spine-like green leaves flank the stem of the blossom before curving outward. From the base of the flower emerge two crooked and brilliant crimson rod-like projections pointing down sideways. They are very thin and half the length of the blossom.
C. sativus blossom with crimson stigmas.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Spermatophytae
Subdivision: Angiospermae
(unranked): Liliopsidae
Order: Asparagales
Family: Iridaceae
Subfamily: Crocoideae
Genus: Crocus
Species: C. sativus
Binomial name
Crocus sativus
L.

Saffron (pronounced play /ˈsæfrɒn/) is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus grows to 20–30 cm (8–12 in) and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigmas, which are each the distal end of a carpel.[1] Together with the styles, or stalks that connect the stigmas to their host plant, the dried stigmas are used mainly in various cuisines as a seasoning and colouring agent. Saffron, long among the world's most costly spices by weight,[2][3] is native to Southwest Asia[4][3] and was first cultivated in Greece.[5] As a genetically monomorphic clone,[6] it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, likely descends from Crocus cartwrightianus, which originated in Crete or Central Asia;[6] C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible precursors.[7][8] The saffron crocus is a triploid that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.[9][8] If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for elongated stigmas, in late Bronze-Age Crete.[10]

Saffron's bitter taste and iodoform- or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal.[11][12] It also contains a carotenoid dye, crocin, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal,[13] and it has been traded and used for over four millennia. Iran now accounts for the lion's share, or around 90%, of world production.[14] Research into its many possible medicinal benefits, ranging from cancer suppression to mood improvement and appetite reduction, is ongoing.

Contents

Species

Description

Köhler's Medicinal Plants:
  corolla
  stamens
  corm
  stigma

The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. It is often mistaken for the more plentiful common autumn crocus, Colchicum autumnale, which is also known as "meadow saffron" or "naked lady", causing deaths due to mistaken identity, though in high dosages saffron is also poisonous. It is a sterile triploid form, possibly of the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus[15][8], which is also known as "wild saffron"[16] and originated in Central Asia.[12] "Triploid" means that three homologous sets of chromosomes compose each specimen's genetic complement; C. sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.[1] The saffron crocus likely resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources.[7][8] Being sterile, the purple flowers of Crocus sativus fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: corms, underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.[15] The compact corms are small brown globules that can measure as large as 5 centimetres (2.0 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibers; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibers, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm above the plant's neck.[1]

C. sativus.

The plant grows to a height of 20–30 cm (8–12 in), and sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leafs known as cataphylls. They are membrane-like structures that cover and protect the crocus's 5–11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm in diameter, either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigation relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as pedicels.[1] After aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.[17] Upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height.[18] A three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm (0.98–1.2 in) in length.[15]

Cultivation

Crocus sativus thrives in the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North American chaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover.[15][19] Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages1,000–1,500 mm (39–59 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,[20] and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose other threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.[21]

Bihud, Iran.

The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7–15 cm (2.8–5.9 in) deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.[1] Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm (5.9 in) deep and in rows 2–3 cm (0.79–1.2 in) apart; depths of 8–10 cm (3.1–3.9 in) optimises flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.

C. sativus prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.[22] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.[23] All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.[24] Roughly 150 flowers together yield but 1 g (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g (0.42 oz) of dried saffron (or 72 g (2.5 oz) moist and freshly harvested), 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flowers are needed; 1 lb (0.45 kg) yields 0.2 oz (5.7 g) of dried saffron. One freshly picked flower yields an average 30 mg (0.0011 oz) of fresh saffron or 7 mg (0.00025 oz) dried.[22]

Spice

Chemistry

Structure of picrocrocin:[25]
  β–D-glucopyranose derivative
  safranal moiety

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,[26] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; it bears the systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[26] Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin.[26] Crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are sugars, a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.[5]

Esterification reaction between crocetin and gentiobiose. Components of α–crocin:
  β–D-gentiobiose
  crocetin

The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical formula: C16H26O7; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is produced via oxidative cleavage, and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. The reddish-coloured zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the retina of the human eye.[27]

When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield D–glucose and a free safranal molecule.[25] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[11][28] Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.[27] A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like".[29] Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal.[29] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidizing agents. It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

Grades

Red threads and yellow styles.

Saffron is graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content.[30] Determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes four empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are assigned grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic absorbance. Absorbance is defined as Aλ = − log(I / I0), with Aλ as absorbance (Beer-Lambert law) and indicates degree of transparency (I / I0, the ratio of light intensity exiting the sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light.

Graders measure absorbances of 440-nm light by dry saffron samples. Higher absorbances imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores. However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practiced by practised wine tasters.[31]

Valuable stigmas, or threads, are only tediously plucked, piled, and dried.

Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.[32] Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beets, pomegranate fibers, red-dyed silk fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[33][34]

Varieties

Different cultivars give rise to stigmas that vary greatly in their delectability and lustre.

The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish; the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some of them organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.[35][36]

Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or zafferano dell'Aquila, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusully high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in the Indian-controlled areas of Kashmir combine with an Indian export ban to contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its dark maroon-purple hue; it among the world's darkest, which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.

History

Main article: History of saffron
A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini.

The documented history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia.[15] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was Crocus cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas; thus, a sterile mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, likely emerged in late Bronze Age Crete.[10]

Eastern

Buddhist adepts pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum, Singapore.

Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal.[13] Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered.[37] Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.[38][39] The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.[40] Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,[38] ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.[41] Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.[42] During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.[43]

Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago.[44][45][46] Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,[5] attributing it to either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks[47] or to a Persian invasion and colonization of Kashmir. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks in India adopted saffron-coloured robes after the Gautama Buddha's death. This color is now used widely in all Buddhist countries. However, the robes were not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit.[48] Gamboge is now used to dye the robes.[49]

Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.[50] Yet saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume pharmacopoeia titled Shennong Bencaojing (神農本草經: "Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao), a tome dating from 200–300 BC. Traditionally credited to the fabled Yan ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) Shennong, it discusses 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.[51] Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to Chinese herbalist Wan Zhen, "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."[46]

Western

Preserved "safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany.
Saffron-based dyes frequently feature in medieval illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th-century depiction of Thomas Becket's assassination.

The Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.[37][52] Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia, where adventurers sought what they thought to be the world's most valued threads.[19] Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.[38] Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,[53] and the Greek hetaerae courtesans used saffron in their scented waters, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.[42]

In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.[54] Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.[55] Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levantine cities as Sidon and Tyre.[56] Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.[57] Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD.[58]

European saffron cultivation plummeted after the Roman Empire went into eclipse. As with France, the spread of Islamic civilization may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.[59] The 14th-century Black Death caused demand for saffron-based medicaments to peak, and large quantities of threads had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes; the theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War".[60] The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in Basel; it thereby grew prosperous.[61] The crop then spread to Nuremberg, where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the Safranschou code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.[62] The corms soon spread throughout England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new specialty crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading center. However, an influx of more exotic spices—chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla—from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline.[63][64] Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain did the clone significantly endure.[65]

Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing its corms; church members had widely grown it in Europe.[35] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were cultivating saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold.[66] The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.[67] Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.[68] American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.[35]

Trade and use

Main article: Trade and use of saffron
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,298 kJ (310 kcal)
Carbohydrates 65.37 g
- Dietary fiber 3.9 g
Fat 5.85 g
- saturated 1.586 g
- monounsaturated 0.429 g
- polyunsaturated 2.067 g
Protein 11.43 g
Water 11.90 g
Vitamin A 530 IU
Thiamine (vit. B1) 0.115 mg (10%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2) 0.267 mg (22%)
Niacin (vit. B3) 1.460 mg (10%)
Vitamin C 80.8 mg (97%)
Calcium 111 mg (11%)
Iron 11.10 mg (85%)
Magnesium 264 mg (74%)
Phosphorus 252 mg (36%)
Potassium 1724 mg (37%)
Sodium 148 mg (10%)
Zinc 1.09 mg (11%)
Selenium 5.6 μg
Folate[N 1] 93 μg
Vitamin B6 1.010 mg
Ash 5.45 g
Edible thread portion only.[69]
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Trade

"Ispanya saffron" at market in Turkey. Note: the "India saffron" is actually turmeric.

Almost all saffron grows in a belt bounded by the Mediterranean in the west and the rugged region encompassing Iran and disputed Kashmir in the east. The other continents, except Antarctica, produce smaller amounts. Some 300 t (300,000 kg) of dried whole threads and powder are gleaned yearly,[12] of which 50 t (50,000 kg) is top-grade "coupe" saffron.[70] Iran answers for around 90–93% of global production and exports much of it.[14] A few of Iran's drier eastern and southeastern provinces, including Fars, Kerman, and those in the Khorasan region, glean the bulk of modern global production. In 2005, the second-ranked Greece produced 5.7 t (5,700.0 kg), while Morocco and Kashmir, tied for third rank, each produced 2.3 t (2,300.0 kg).[14] Nevertheless, Iranian crop yields and profit margins on a per-acre basis are relatively low; margins in Spain, followed by Greece and Italy, are far higher.

In recent years, Afghan cultivation has risen; in restive Kashmir it has declined.[71] Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy are, in decreasing order, lesser producers. Prohibitively high labour costs and abundant Iranian imports mean that only select locales continue the tedious harvest in Austria, England, Germany, and Switzerland—among them the Swiss village of Mund, whose annual output is a few kilograms.[12]Tasmania,[72] China, Egypt, France, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Turkey (mainly around the town of Safranbolu), California, and Central Africa are microscale cultivators.[3][26]

To glean an amount of dry saffron weighing 1 lb (450 g) is to harvest 50,000–75,000 flowers, the equivalent of an association football field's area of cultivation; 110,000–170,000 flowers or two football fields are needed to gross one kilogram.[73][74] Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.[75] Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.[76] Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound, or US$1,100–11,000/kg, equivalent to £2,500/€3,500 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilogram. The price in Canada recently rose to CAD 18,000 per kilogram. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound, or US$2,200/£1,100/€1,550 per kilogram.[3] A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.

Use

Threads are soaked in hot—but not boiling—water for several minutes prior to use in cuisine. This helps release the beneficial components.

Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in European, Arab, South and Central Asian, Persian, and Turkish cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"), annatto, and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.[77] It is used for religious purposes in India, and is widely used in cooking in many ethnic cuisines: these range, for example, from the Milanese risotto of Italy or the bouillabaise of France to biryani with various meat accompaniments in South Asia.

Saffron has a long medicinal history as part of traditional healing; modern medicine has also discovered saffron as having anticarcinogenic (cancer-suppressing), anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidant-like properties.[26][78][79] Saffron stigmas, and even petals, have been said to be helpful for depression.[80] Early studies show that saffron may protect the eyes from the direct effects of bright light and retinal stress apart from slowing down macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa.[81] (Most saffron-related research refers to the stigmas, but this is often not made explicit in research papers.)

Health benefits

Controlled research studies have indicated that saffron may have many potential medicinal uses:[82]

Conditions Suggested health benefits Referenced studies
Premenstrual syndrome.

Saffron was found to be effective in relieving symptoms of PMS or PMT.

(Agha-Hosseini et al. 2008).
Depression.

Animal studies has shown that the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron and its constituents, crocin and safranal, have antidepressant activities as revealed during forced swimming tests.

(Hosseinzadeh, Karimi & Niapoor 2004).
Obesity.

"Satiereal", a novel extract of saffron stigma, may reduce snacking and enhance satiety through its suggested mood-enhancing effect. It may thereby help with weight loss.

(Gout, Bourges & Paineau-Dubreuil 2010).
Alzheimer's disease.

A 2010 double-blind and placebo-controlled study found saffron helped mild to moderate the progression of symptoms in Alzheimer's patients.

(Akhondzadeh et al. 2010).
Autoimmune diseasess and immune health.

A 2011 double-blind human trial found use of 100 mg of saffron daily has temporary immunomodulatory activities.

(Kianbakht & Ghazavi 2011).
Allergies.

Crocus sativus inhibits histamine H1 receptors in animals, suggesting a potential use against allergic disorders. (Histamine is a biological amine that plays an important role in allergic responses.)

(Boskabady et al. 2010).
Heart disease.

Saffron may have a protective effect on the heart.

(Joukar et al. 2010).
Cancer (generalised).

Crocetin, an important carotenoid constituent of saffron, has shown significant potential as an anti-tumor agent in animal models and cell culture systems.

(Gutheil et al. 2011).
Skin cancer

Saffron inhibits DMBA-induced skin carcinoma in mice when the condition is treated early.

(Das, Das & Saha 2010).
Breast cancer.

Saffron, crocins, and crocetin inhibit breast cancer cell proliferation.

(Chryssanthi et al. 2011).

See also

Persian saffron threads.       Topics related to saffron:     Saffron · History · Trade and use

Notes

  1. ^ "Folate" refers only to the naturally occurring form of folic acid; the sample contains no folic acid per se.[69]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e Kafi et al. 2006, p. 23.
  2. ^ Rau 1969, p. 53.
  3. ^ a b c d Hill 2004, p. 272.
  4. ^ Grigg 1974, p. 287.
  5. ^ a b c McGee 2004, p. 422.
  6. ^ a b Rubio-Moraga et al. 2009.
  7. ^ a b Negbi 1999, p. 28.
  8. ^ a b c d Caiola 2003, p. 1.
  9. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 30–31.
  10. ^ a b Negbi 1999, p. 1.
  11. ^ a b McGee 2004, p. 423.
  12. ^ a b c d Katzer 2001.
  13. ^ a b Russo, Dreher & Mathre 2003, p. 6.
  14. ^ a b c Ghorbani 2008, p. 1.
  15. ^ a b c d e Deo 2003, p. 1.
  16. ^ Kafi et al. 2006, p. 24.
  17. ^ Willard 2002, p. 3.
  18. ^ Government of Tasmania 2005.
  19. ^ a b Willard 2002, pp. 2–3.
  20. ^ Deo 2003, p. 2.
  21. ^ Sharaf-Eldin et al. 2008.
  22. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 3.
  23. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 3–4.
  24. ^ Willard 2002, p. 4.
  25. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 4.
  26. ^ a b c d e Abdullaev 2002, p. 1.
  27. ^ a b Leffingwell 2002, p. 1.
  28. ^ Dharmananda 2005.
  29. ^ a b Leffingwell 2002, p. 3.
  30. ^ Verma & Middha 2010, p. 1–2.
  31. ^ Hill 2004, p. 274.
  32. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 102–104.
  33. ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2003.
  34. ^ Hussain 2005.
  35. ^ a b c Willard 2002, p. 143.
  36. ^ Willard 2002, p. 201.
  37. ^ a b Honan 2004.
  38. ^ a b c Willard 2002, p. 2.
  39. ^ Humphries 1998, p. 20.
  40. ^ Willard 2002, p. 12.
  41. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 17–18.
  42. ^ a b Willard 2002, p. 41.
  43. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 54–55.
  44. ^ Lak 1998b.
  45. ^ Fotedar 1999, p. 128.
  46. ^ a b Dalby 2002, p. 95.
  47. ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256.
  48. ^ Finlay 2003, p. 224.
  49. ^ Hanelt 2001, p. 1352.
  50. ^ Fletcher 2005, p. 11.
  51. ^ Hayes 2001, p. 6.
  52. ^ Ferrence & Bendersky 2004, p. 1.
  53. ^ Willard 2002, p. 58.
  54. ^ Willard 2002, p. 55.
  55. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 34–35.
  56. ^ Willard 2002, p. 59.
  57. ^ Marx 1989.
  58. ^ Willard 2002, p. 63.
  59. ^ Willard 2002, p. 70.
  60. ^ Willard 2002, p. 99.
  61. ^ Willard 2002, p. 101.
  62. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 103–104.
  63. ^ Willard 2002, p. 117.
  64. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 132–133.
  65. ^ Willard 2002, p. 133.
  66. ^ Willard 2002, p. 138.
  67. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 138–139.
  68. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 142–146.
  69. ^ a b United States Department of Agriculture.
  70. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 2.
  71. ^ Malik 2007.
  72. ^ Courtney 2002.
  73. ^ Hill 2004, p. 273.
  74. ^ Rau 1969, p. 35.
  75. ^ Lak 1998a.
  76. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 8.
  77. ^ Dalby 2002, p. 138.
  78. ^ Assimopoulou, Papageorgiou & Sinakos 2005, p. 1.
  79. ^ Chang et al. 1964, p. 1.
  80. ^ Bailes 1995.
  81. ^ Maccarone, Di Marco & Bisti 2008.
  82. ^ Moghaddasi 2010.

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  • SAFFRON — (Heb. כַּרְכֹּם, karkom), the Crocus sativus; an aromatic golden dye was extracted from the stigmas of its golden blossoms. It was also dried and used for flavoring foods. In the Bible karkom is mentioned once among the various spices that grew… …   Encyclopedia of Judaism

  • Saffron — Saf fron (?; 277), n. [OE. saffran, F. safran; cf. It. zafferano, Sp. azafran, Pg. a[,c]afr[ a]o; all fr. Ar. & Per. za far[=a]n.] 1. (Bot.) A bulbous iridaceous plant ({Crocus sativus}) having blue flowers with large yellow stigmas. See {Crocus} …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • Saffron — Saf fron (?; 277), a. Having the color of the stigmas of saffron flowers; deep orange yellow; as, a saffron face; a saffron streamer. [1913 Webster] …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • Saffron — Saltar a navegación, búsqueda Samantha Marie Sprackling Información personal Nombre real Samantha Marie Sprackling Nacimiento 3 de junio, 1968 (41 años) Ibadan, Nigeria …   Wikipedia Español

  • Saffron — Saf fron, v. t. To give color and flavor to, as by means of saffron; to spice. [Obs.] [1913 Webster] And in Latyn I speak a wordes few, To saffron with my predication. Chaucer. [1913 Webster] …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • saffron — [saf′rən] n. [ME saffroun < OFr safran < ML safranum < Ar zaʼfarān] 1. a perennial Old World plant (Crocus sativus) of the iris family, with funnel shaped, purplish flowers having orange stigmas 2. the dried, aromatic stigmas of this… …   English World dictionary

  • saffron — (n.) c.1200, from O.Fr. safran (12c.), from M.L. safranum (Cf. It. zafferano, Sp. azafran), ultimately from Arabic za faran, of unknown origin …   Etymology dictionary

  • saffron — ► NOUN ▪ an orange yellow spice used for flavouring and colouring food, made from the dried stigmas of a crocus. ORIGIN Arabic …   English terms dictionary

  • saffron — /saf reuhn/, n. 1. Also called vegetable gold. a crocus, Crocus sativus, having showy purple flowers. 2. an orange colored condiment consisting of its dried stigmas, used to color and flavor foods. 3. Also, saffron yellow. yellow orange. [1150… …   Universalium

  • saffron — [[t]sæ̱frɒn[/t]] 1) N UNCOUNT Saffron is a yellowish orange powder obtained from a flower and used to give flavour and colouring to some foods. ...saffron rice. 2) COLOUR Saffron is a yellowish orange colour. ...a Buddhist in saffron robes …   English dictionary

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