Magnetic resonance imaging

"MRI" redirects here. For other meanings of MRI or Mri, see MRI (disambiguation).

Magnetic resonance imaging
Intervention
Sagittal MR image of the knee
ICD-10-PCS	B?3?ZZZ
ICD-9:	88.91-88.97
MeSH	D008279
OPS-301 code:	3-80...3-84

Para-sagittal MRI of the head, with aliasing artifacts (nose and forehead appear at the back of the head)

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), or magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize detailed internal structures. MRI makes use of the property of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to image nuclei of atoms inside the body.

An MRI machine uses a powerful magnetic field to align the magnetization of some atoms in the body, and radio frequency fields to systematically alter the alignment of this magnetization. This causes the nuclei to produce a rotating magnetic field detectable by the scanner—and this information is recorded to construct an image of the scanned area of the body.^[1]:36 Strong magnetic field gradients cause nuclei at different locations to rotate at different speeds. 3-D spatial information can be obtained by providing gradients in each direction.

MRI provides good contrast between the different soft tissues of the body, which makes it especially useful in imaging the brain, muscles, the heart, and cancers compared with other medical imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) or X-rays. Unlike CT scans or traditional X-rays, MRI uses no ionizing radiation.

How MRI works

Main article: Physics of Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The body is largely composed of water molecules. Each water molecule has two hydrogen nuclei or protons. When a person is inside the powerful magnetic field of the scanner, the magnetic moments of some of these molecules become aligned with the direction of the field. A radio frequency transmitter is briefly turned on, producing a further varying electromagnetic field. The photons of this field have just the right energy, known as the resonance frequency, to be absorbed and flip the spin of the aligned protons in the body. The frequency at which the protons resonate depends on the strength of the applied magnetic field. After the field is turned off, those protons which absorbed energy revert to the original lower-energy spin-down state. Now a hydrogen dipole has two spins, 1 high spin and 1 low. In low spin both dipole and field are in parallel direction and in high spin case it is antiparallel. They release the difference in energy as a photon, and the released photons are detected by the scanner as an electromagnetic signal, similar to radio waves.

As a result of conservation of energy, the resonant frequency also dictates the frequency of the released photons. The photons released when the field is removed have an energy — and therefore a frequency — which depends on the energy absorbed while the field was active. It is this relationship between field-strength and frequency that allows the use of nuclear magnetic resonance for imaging. An image can be constructed because the protons in different tissues return to their equilibrium state at different rates, which is a difference that can be detected. Five different tissue variables — spin density, T₁ and T₂ relaxation times and flow and spectral shifts can be used to construct images.^[2] By changing the settings on the scanner, this effect is used to create contrast between different types of body tissue or between other properties, as in fMRI and diffusion MRI.

The 3D position from which photons were released is learned by applying additional fields during the scan. This is done by passing electric currents through specially-wound solenoids, known as gradient coils. These fields make the magnetic field strength vary depending on the position within the patient, which in turn makes the frequency of released photons dependent on their original position in a predictable manner, and the original locations can be mathematically recovered from the resulting signal by the use of inverse Fourier transform.

Contrast agents may be injected intravenously to enhance the appearance of blood vessels, tumors or inflammation. Contrast agents may also be directly injected into a joint in the case of arthrograms, MRI images of joints. Unlike CT, MRI uses no ionizing radiation and is generally a very safe procedure. Nonetheless the strong magnetic fields and radio pulses can affect metal implants, including cochlear implants and cardiac pacemakers. In the case of cochlear implants, the US FDA has approved some implants for MRI compatibility. In the case of cardiac pacemakers, the results can sometimes be lethal,^[3] so patients with such implants are generally not eligible for MRI.

Since the gradient coils are within the bore of the scanner, there are large forces between them and the main field coils, producing most of the noise that is heard during operation. Without efforts to damp this noise, it can approach 130 decibels (dB) with strong fields ^[4] (see also the subsection on acoustic noise).

MRI is used to image every part of the body, and is particularly useful for tissues with many hydrogen nuclei and little density contrast, such as the brain, muscle, connective tissue and most tumors.

History

In the 1950s, Herman Carr reported on the creation of a one-dimensional MR image.^[5] Paul Lauterbur expanded on Carr's technique and developed a way to generate the first MRI images, in 2D and 3D, using gradients. In 1973, Lauterbur published the first nuclear magnetic resonance image.^[6][7] and the first cross-sectional image of a living mouse was published in January 1974.^[8] Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging is a relatively new technology first developed at the University of Nottingham, England. Peter Mansfield, a physicist and professor at the university, then developed a mathematical technique that would allow scans to take seconds rather than hours and produce clearer images than Lauterbur had.

Raymond Damadian's "Apparatus and method for detecting cancer in tissue."

In a 1971 paper in the journal Science,^[9] Dr. Raymond Damadian, an Armenian-American physician, scientist, and professor at the Downstate Medical Center State University of New York (SUNY), reported that tumors and normal tissue can be distinguished in vivo by nuclear magnetic resonance ("NMR"). He suggested that these differences could be used to diagnose cancer, though later research would find that these differences, while real, are too variable for diagnostic purposes. Damadian's initial methods were flawed for practical use,^[10] relying on a point-by-point scan of the entire body and using relaxation rates, which turned out to not be an effective indicator of cancerous tissue.^[11]

While researching the analytical properties of magnetic resonance, Damadian created the world's first magnetic resonance imaging machine in 1972. He filed the first patent for an MRI machine, U.S. patent #3,789,832 on March 17, 1972, which was later issued to him on February 5, 1974.^[12] As the National Science Foundation notes, "The patent included the idea of using NMR to 'scan' the human body to locate cancerous tissue."^[13] However, it did not describe a method for generating pictures from such a scan or precisely how such a scan might be done.^[14] Damadian along with Larry Minkoff and Michael Goldsmith, subsequently went on to perform the first MRI body scan of a human being on July 3, 1977.^[15][16] These studies performed on humans were published in 1977.^[17][18]

In recording the history of MRI, Mattson and Simon (1996) credit Damadian with describing the concept of whole-body NMR scanning, as well as discovering the NMR tissue relaxation differences that made this feasible.

2003 Nobel Prize

Reflecting the fundamental importance and applicability of MRI in medicine, Paul Lauterbur of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Sir Peter Mansfield of the University of Nottingham were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging". The Nobel citation acknowledged Lauterbur's insight of using magnetic field gradients to determine spatial localization, a discovery that allowed rapid acquisition of 2D images. Mansfield was credited with introducing the mathematical formalism and developing techniques for efficient gradient utilization and fast imaging. The actual research that won the prize was done almost 30 years before, while Paul Lauterbur was at Stony Brook University in New York.

The award was vigorously protested by Raymond Vahan Damadian, founder of FONAR Corporation, who claimed that he invented the MRI,^[7] and that Lauterbur and Mansfield had merely refined the technology.^[19] An ad hoc group, called "The Friends of Raymond Damadian", took out full-page advertisements in the New York Times and The Washington Post entitled "The Shameful Wrong That Must Be Righted", demanding that he be awarded at least a share of the Nobel Prize.^[20] Also, even earlier, in the Soviet Union, Vladislav Ivanov filed (in 1960) a document with the USSR State Committee for Inventions and Discovery at Leningrad for a Magnetic Resonance Imaging device,^[21] although this was not approved until the 1970s.^[22] In a letter to Physics Today, Herman Carr pointed out his own even earlier use of field gradients for one-dimensional MR imaging.^[23]

Applications

In clinical practice, MRI is used to distinguish pathologic tissue (such as a brain tumor) from normal tissue. One advantage of an MRI scan is that it is harmless to the patient. It uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radiation in the radio frequency range, unlike CT scans and traditional X-rays, which both use ionizing radiation.

While CT provides good spatial resolution (the ability to distinguish two separate structures an arbitrarily small distance from each other), MRI provides comparable resolution with far better contrast resolution (the ability to distinguish the differences between two arbitrarily similar but not identical tissues). The basis of this ability is the complex library of pulse sequences that the modern medical MRI scanner includes, each of which is optimized to provide image contrast based on the chemical sensitivity of MRI.

Effects of TR and TE on MR signal.

For example, with particular values of the echo time (T_E) and the repetition time (T_R), which are basic parameters of image acquisition, a sequence takes on the property of T₂-weighting. On a T₂-weighted scan, water- and fluid-containing tissues are bright (most modern T₂ sequences are actually fast T₂ sequences) and fat-containing tissues are dark. The reverse is true for T₁-weighted images. Damaged tissue tends to develop edema, which makes a T₂-weighted sequence sensitive for pathology, and generally able to distinguish pathologic tissue from normal tissue. With the addition of an additional radio frequency pulse and additional manipulation of the magnetic gradients, a T₂-weighted sequence can be converted to a FLAIR sequence, in which free water is now dark, but edematous tissues remain bright. This sequence in particular is currently the most sensitive way to evaluate the brain for demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis.

The typical MRI examination consists of 5–20 sequences, each of which are chosen to provide a particular type of information about the subject tissues. This information is then synthesized by the interpreting physician.

Basic MRI scans

T₁-weighted MRI

Main article: Spin-lattice relaxation time

T₁-weighted scans are a standard basic scan, in particular differentiating fat from water - with water darker and fat brighter^[24] use a gradient echo (GRE) sequence, with short T_E and short T_R. This is one of the basic types of MR contrast and is a commonly run clinical scan. The T₁ weighting can be increased (improving contrast) with the use of an inversion pulse as in an MP-RAGE sequence. Due to the short repetition time (T_R) this scan can be run very fast allowing the collection of high resolution 3D datasets. A T₁ reducing gadolinium contrast agent is also commonly used, with a T₁ scan being collected before and after administration of contrast agent to compare the difference. In the brain T₁-weighted scans provide good gray matter/white matter contrast; in other words, T₁-weighted images highlight fat deposition.

T₂-weighted MRI

Main article: Spin-spin relaxation time

T₂-weighted scans are another basic type. Like the T₁-weighted scan, fat is differentiated from water - but in this case fat shows darker, and water lighter. For example, in the case of cerebral and spinal study, the CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) will be lighter in T₂-weighted images. These scans are therefore particularly well suited to imaging edema, with long T_E and long T_R. Because the spin echo sequence is less susceptible to inhomogeneities in the magnetic field, these images have long been a clinical workhorse.

T*
2-weighted MRI

T*
2 (pronounced "T 2 star") weighted scans use a gradient echo (GRE) sequence, with long T_E and long T_R. The gradient echo sequence used does not have the extra refocusing pulse used in spin echo so it is subject to additional losses above the normal T₂ decay (referred to as T₂′), these taken together are called T*
2. This also makes it more prone to susceptibility losses at air/tissue boundaries, but can increase contrast for certain types of tissue, such as venous blood.

Spin density weighted MRI

Spin density, also called proton density, weighted scans try to have no contrast from either T₂ or T₁ decay, the only signal change coming from differences in the amount of available spins (hydrogen nuclei in water). It uses a spin echo or sometimes a gradient echo sequence, with short T_E and long T_R.

Specialized MRI scans

Diffusion MRI

Main article: Diffusion MRI

DTI image

Diffusion MRI measures the diffusion of water molecules in biological tissues.^[25] In an isotropic medium (inside a glass of water for example), water molecules naturally move randomly according to turbulence and Brownian motion. In biological tissues however, where the Reynolds number is low enough for flows to be laminar, the diffusion may be anisotropic. For example, a molecule inside the axon of a neuron has a low probability of crossing the myelin membrane. Therefore the molecule moves principally along the axis of the neural fiber. If it is known that molecules in a particular voxel diffuse principally in one direction, the assumption can be made that the majority of the fibers in this area are going parallel to that direction.

The recent development of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)^[7] enables diffusion to be measured in multiple directions and the fractional anisotropy in each direction to be calculated for each voxel. This enables researchers to make brain maps of fiber directions to examine the connectivity of different regions in the brain (using tractography) or to examine areas of neural degeneration and demyelination in diseases like Multiple Sclerosis.

Another application of diffusion MRI is diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). Following an ischemic stroke, DWI is highly sensitive to the changes occurring in the lesion.^[26] It is speculated that increases in restriction (barriers) to water diffusion, as a result of cytotoxic edema (cellular swelling), is responsible for the increase in signal on a DWI scan. The DWI enhancement appears within 5–10 minutes of the onset of stroke symptoms (as compared with computed tomography, which often does not detect changes of acute infarct for up to 4–6 hours) and remains for up to two weeks. Coupled with imaging of cerebral perfusion, researchers can highlight regions of "perfusion/diffusion mismatch" that may indicate regions capable of salvage by reperfusion therapy.

Like many other specialized applications, this technique is usually coupled with a fast image acquisition sequence, such as echo planar imaging sequence.

Magnetization Transfer MRI

Main article: Magnetization transfer

Magnetization transfer (MT) refers to the transfer of longitudinal magnetization from free water protons to hydration water protons in NMR and MRI.

In magnetic resonance imaging of molecular solutions, such as protein solutions, two types of water molecules, free (bulk) and hydration (bound), are found. Free water protons have faster average rotational frequency and hence less fixed water molecules that may cause local field inhomogeneity. Because of this uniformity, most free water protons have resonance frequency lying narrowly around the normal proton resonance frequency of 63 MHz (at 1.5 teslas). This also results in slower transverse magnetization dephasing and hence longer T₂. Conversely, hydration water molecules are slowed down by interaction with solute molecules and hence create field inhomogeneities that lead to wider resonance frequency spectrum.

In free liquids, protons, which may be viewed classically as small magnetic dipoles, exhibit translational and rotational motions. These moving dipoles disturb the surrounding magnetic field however on long enough time-scales (which may be nanoseconds) the average field caused by the motion of protons is zero. This is known as “motional averaging” or narrowing and is characteristic of protons moving freely in liquid. On the other hand, protons bound to macromolecules, such as proteins, tend to have a fixed orientation and so the average magnetic field in close proximity to such structures does not average to zero. The result is a spatial pattern in the magnetic field that gives rise to a residual dipolar coupling (range of precession frequencies) for the protons experiencing the magnetic field. The wide frequency distribution appears as a broad spectrum that may be several kHz wide. The net signal from these protons disappears very quickly, in inverse proportion to the width, due to the loss of coherence of the spins, i.e. T2 relaxation. Due to exchange mechanisms, such as spin transfer or proton chemical exchange, the (incoherent) spins bound to the macromolecules continually switch places with (coherent) spins in the bulk media and establish a dynamic equilibrium.

Magnetization transfer: Although there is no measurable signal from the bound spins, or the bound spins that exchange into the bulk media, their longitudinal magnetization is preserved and may recover only via the relatively slow process of T1 relaxation. If the longitudinal magnetization of just the bound spins can be altered, then the effect can be measured in the spins of the bulk media due to the exchange processes. The magnetization transfer sequence applies RF saturation at a frequency that is far off resonance for the narrow line of bulk water but still on resonance for the bound protons with a spectral linewidth of kHz. This causes saturation of the bound spins which exchange into the bulk water, resulting in a loss of longitudinal magnetization and hence signal decrease in the bulk water. This provides an indirect measure of macromolecular content in tissue. Implementation of magnetization transfer involves choosing suitable frequency offsets and pulse shapes to saturate the bound spins sufficiently strongly, within the safety limits of specific absorption rate for RF irradiation.

T1rho MRI

Main article: Spin-lattice relaxation time in the rotating frame

T1ρ (T1rho): Molecules have a kinetic energy that is a function of the temperature and is expressed as translational and rotational motions, and by collisions between molecules. The moving dipoles disturb the magnetic field but are often extremely rapid so that the average effect over a long time-scale may be zero. However, depending on the time-scale, the interactions between the dipoles do not always average away. At the slowest extreme the interaction time is effectively infinite and occurs where there are large, stationary field disturbances (e.g. a metallic implant). In this case the loss of coherence is described as a "static dephasing". T2* is a measure of the loss of coherence in an ensemble of spins that include all interactions (including static dephasing). T2 is a measure of the loss of coherence that excludes static dephasing, using an RF pulse to reverse the slowest types of dipolar interaction. There is in fact a continuum of interaction time-scales in a given biological sample and the properties of the refocusing RF pulse can be tuned to refocus more than just static dephasing. In general, the rate of decay of an ensemble of spins is a function of the interaction times and also the power of the RF pulse. This type of decay, occurring under the influence of RF, is known as T1ρ. It is similar to T2 decay but with some slower dipolar interactions refocused as well as the static interactions, hence T1ρ≥T2^[27] .

Fluid attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR)

Main article: Fluid attenuated inversion recovery

Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery (FLAIR)^[28] is an inversion-recovery pulse sequence used to null signal from fluids. For example, it can be used in brain imaging to suppress cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) so as to bring out the periventricular hyperintense lesions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS) plaques. By carefully choosing the inversion time TI (the time between the inversion and excitation pulses), the signal from any particular tissue can be suppressed.

Magnetic resonance angiography

Magnetic Resonance Angiography

Main article: Magnetic resonance angiography

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) generates pictures of the arteries to evaluate them for stenosis (abnormal narrowing) or aneurysms (vessel wall dilatations, at risk of rupture). MRA is often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, the renal arteries, and the legs (called a "run-off"). A variety of techniques can be used to generate the pictures, such as administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent (gadolinium) or using a technique known as "flow-related enhancement" (e.g. 2D and 3D time-of-flight sequences), where most of the signal on an image is due to blood that recently moved into that plane, see also FLASH MRI. Techniques involving phase accumulation (known as phase contrast angiography) can also be used to generate flow velocity maps easily and accurately. Magnetic resonance venography (MRV) is a similar procedure that is used to image veins. In this method, the tissue is now excited inferiorly, while signal is gathered in the plane immediately superior to the excitation plane—thus imaging the venous blood that recently moved from the excited plane.^[29]

Magnetic resonance gated intracranial CSF dynamics (MR-GILD)

Magnetic resonance gated intracranial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or liquor dynamics (MR-GILD) technique is an MR sequence based on bipolar gradient pulse used to demonstrate CSF pulsatile flow in ventricles, cisterns, aqueduct of Sylvius and entire intracranial CSF pathway. It is a method for analyzing CSF circulatory system dynamics in patients with CSF obstructive lesions such as normal pressure hydrocephalus. It also allows visualization of both arterial and venous pulsatile blood flow in vessels without use of contrast agents.^[30][31]

Diastolic time data acquisition (DTDA).	Systolic time data acquisition (STDA).

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Main article: In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Main article: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is used to measure the levels of different metabolites in body tissues. The MR signal produces a spectrum of resonances that correspond to different molecular arrangements of the isotope being "excited". This signature is used to diagnose certain metabolic disorders, especially those affecting the brain,^[32] and to provide information on tumor metabolism.^[33]

Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) combines both spectroscopic and imaging methods to produce spatially localized spectra from within the sample or patient. The spatial resolution is much lower (limited by the available SNR), but the spectra in each voxel contains information about many metabolites. Because the available signal is used to encode spatial and spectral information, MRSI requires high SNR achievable only at higher field strengths (3 T and above).

Functional MRI

Main article: Functional magnetic resonance imaging

A fMRI scan showing regions of activation in orange, including the primary visual cortex (V1, BA17).

Functional MRI (fMRI) measures signal changes in the brain that are due to changing neural activity. The brain is scanned at low resolution but at a rapid rate (typically once every 2–3 seconds). Increases in neural activity cause changes in the MR signal via T*
2 changes;^[34] this mechanism is referred to as the BOLD (blood-oxygen-level dependent) effect. Increased neural activity causes an increased demand for oxygen, and the vascular system actually overcompensates for this, increasing the amount of oxygenated hemoglobin relative to deoxygenated hemoglobin. Because deoxygenated hemoglobin attenuates the MR signal, the vascular response leads to a signal increase that is related to the neural activity. The precise nature of the relationship between neural activity and the BOLD signal is a subject of current research. The BOLD effect also allows for the generation of high resolution 3D maps of the venous vasculature within neural tissue.

While BOLD signal is the most common method employed for neuroscience studies in human subjects, the flexible nature of MR imaging provides means to sensitize the signal to other aspects of the blood supply. Alternative techniques employ arterial spin labeling (ASL) or weight the MRI signal by cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV). The CBV method requires injection of a class of MRI contrast agents that are now in human clinical trials. Because this method has been shown to be far more sensitive than the BOLD technique in preclinical studies, it may potentially expand the role of fMRI in clinical applications. The CBF method provides more quantitative information than the BOLD signal, albeit at a significant loss of detection sensitivity.

Real-time MRI

Real-time MRI of a human heart at a resolution of 50 ms

Main article: Real-time MRI

Real-time MRI refers to the continuous monitoring (“filming”) of moving objects in real time. While many different strategies have been developed over the past two decades, a recent development reported a real-time MRI technique based on radial FLASH and iterative reconstruction that yields a temporal resolution of 20 to 30 milliseconds for images with an in-plane resolution of 1.5 to 2.0 mm. The new method promises to add important information about diseases of the joints and the heart. In many cases MRI examinations may become easier and more comfortable for patients.

Interventional MRI

Main article: Interventional MRI

The lack of harmful effects on the patient and the operator make MRI well-suited for "interventional radiology", where the images produced by a MRI scanner are used to guide minimally invasive procedures. Of course, such procedures must be done without any ferromagnetic instruments.

A specialized growing subset of interventional MRI is that of intraoperative MRI in which the MRI is used in the surgical process. Some specialized MRI systems have been developed that allow imaging concurrent with the surgical procedure. More typical, however, is that the surgical procedure is temporarily interrupted so that MR images can be acquired to verify the success of the procedure or guide subsequent surgical work.

Radiation therapy simulation

Because of MRI's superior imaging of soft tissues, it is now being utilized to specifically locate tumors within the body in preparation for radiation therapy treatments. For therapy simulation, a patient is placed in specific, reproducible, body position and scanned. The MRI system then computes the precise location, shape and orientation of the tumor mass, correcting for any spatial distortion inherent in the system. The patient is then marked or tattooed with points that, when combined with the specific body position, permits precise triangulation for radiation therapy.^{[citation needed]}

Current density imaging

Current density imaging (CDI) endeavors to use the phase information from images to reconstruct current densities within a subject. Current density imaging works because electrical currents generate magnetic fields, which in turn affect the phase of the magnetic dipoles during an imaging sequence.^{[citation needed]}

Magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound

In MRgFUS therapy, ultrasound beams are focused on a tissue—guided and controlled using MR thermal imaging—and due to the significant energy deposition at the focus, temperature within the tissue rises to more than 65 °C (150 °F), completely destroying it. This technology can achieve precise ablation of diseased tissue. MR imaging provides a three-dimensional view of the target tissue, allowing for precise focusing of ultrasound energy. The MR imaging provides quantitative, real-time, thermal images of the treated area. This allows the physician to ensure that the temperature generated during each cycle of ultrasound energy is sufficient to cause thermal ablation within the desired tissue and if not, to adapt the parameters to ensure effective treatment.^[35]

Multinuclear imaging

Hydrogen is the most frequently imaged nucleus in MRI because it is present in biological tissues in great abundance, and because its high gyromagnetic ratio gives a strong signal. However, any nucleus with a net nuclear spin could potentially be imaged with MRI. Such nuclei include helium-3, carbon-13, fluorine-19, oxygen-17, sodium-23, phosphorus-31 and xenon-129. ²³Na and ³¹P are naturally abundant in the body, so can be imaged directly. Gaseous isotopes such as ³He or ¹²⁹Xe must be hyperpolarized and then inhaled as their nuclear density is too low to yield a useful signal under normal conditions. ¹⁷O and ¹⁹F can be administered in sufficient quantities in liquid form (e.g. ¹⁷O-water) that hyperpolarization is not a necessity.^{[citation needed]}

Multinuclear imaging is primarily a research technique at present. However, potential applications include functional imaging and imaging of organs poorly seen on ¹H MRI (e.g. lungs and bones) or as alternative contrast agents. Inhaled hyperpolarized ³He can be used to image the distribution of air spaces within the lungs. Injectable solutions containing ¹³C or stabilized bubbles of hyperpolarized ¹²⁹Xe have been studied as contrast agents for angiography and perfusion imaging. ³¹P can potentially provide information on bone density and structure, as well as functional imaging of the brain.^{[citation needed]}

Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI)

Main article: Susceptibility weighted imaging

Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI), is a new type of contrast in MRI different from spin density, T₁, or T₂ imaging. This method exploits the susceptibility differences between tissues and uses a fully velocity compensated, three dimensional, RF spoiled, high-resolution, 3D gradient echo scan. This special data acquisition and image processing produces an enhanced contrast magnitude image very sensitive to venous blood, hemorrhage and iron storage. It is used to enhance the detection and diagnosis of tumors, vascular and neurovascular diseases (stroke and hemorrhage, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's), and also detects traumatic brain injuries that may not be diagnosed using other methods^[36]

Other specialized MRI techniques

New methods and variants of existing methods are often published when they are able to produce better results in specific fields. Examples of these recent improvements are T*
2-weighted turbo spin-echo (T₂ TSE MRI), double inversion recovery MRI (DIR-MRI) or phase-sensitive inversion recovery MRI (PSIR-MRI), all of them able to improve imaging of the brain lesions.^[37][38] Another example is MP-RAGE (magnetization-prepared rapid acquisition with gradient echo),^[39] which improves images of multiple sclerosis cortical lesions.^[40]

Portable instruments

Portable magnetic resonance instruments are available for use in education and field research. Using the principles of Earth's field NMR, they have no powerful polarizing magnet, so that such instruments can be small and inexpensive. Some can be used for both EFNMR spectroscopy and MRI imaging.^[41] The low strength of the Earth's field results in poor signal to noise ratios (SNR), requiring long scan times to capture spectroscopic data or build up MRI images. However, the extremely low noise floor of SQUID-based MRI detectors, and the low density of thermal noise in the low-frequency operating range (tens of kiloHertz) may result in useable SNR approaching that of mid-field conventional instruments. Further, the ultra-low field technologies enable electron spin resonance detection, and potentially imaging, at safe operating frequencies (NASA Technical Brief).

Research with atomic magnetometers have discussed the possibility for cheap and portable MRI instruments without the large magnet.^[42][43]

MRI versus CT

A computed tomography (CT) scanner uses X-rays, a type of ionizing radiation, to acquire images, making it a good tool for examining tissue composed of elements of a higher atomic number than the tissue surrounding them, such as bone and calcifications (calcium based) within the body (carbon based flesh), or of structures (vessels, bowel). MRI, on the other hand, uses non-ionizing radio frequency (RF) signals to acquire its images and is best suited for soft tissue (although MRI can also be used to acquire images of bones, teeth^[44] and even fossils^[45]).

In contrast, CT images are generated purely by X-ray attenuation, while a variety of properties may be used to generate contrast in MR images. By variation of scanning parameters, tissue contrast can be altered to enhance different features in an image (see Applications for more details). Both CT and MR images may be enhanced by the use of contrast agents. Contrast agents for CT contain elements of a high atomic number, relative to tissue, such as iodine or barium, while contrast agents for MRI have paramagnetic properties, such as gadolinium and manganese, used to alter tissue relaxation times.

CT and MRI scanners are able to generate multiple two-dimensional cross-sections (tomographs, or "slices") of tissue and three-dimensional reconstructions. MRI can generate cross-sectional images in any plane (including oblique planes). In the past, CT was limited to acquiring images in the axial (or near axial) plane. The scans used to be called Computed Axial Tomography scans (CAT scans). However, the development of multi-detector CT scanners with near-isotropic resolution, allows the CT scanner to produce data that can be retrospectively reconstructed in any plane with minimal loss of image quality. For purposes of tumor detection and identification in the brain, MRI is generally superior.^[46][47] However, in the case of solid tumors of the abdomen and chest, CT is often preferred as it suffers less from motion artifacts. Furthermore, CT usually is more widely available, faster, less expensive, and may be less likely to require the person to be sedated or anaesthetized as a result of being less enclosed and noisy, and therefore less psychologically intimidating.

MRI is also best suited for cases when a patient is to undergo the exam several times successively in the short term, because, unlike CT, it does not expose the patient to the hazards of ionizing radiation.

Economics of MRI

MRI equipment is expensive. 1.5 tesla scanners often cost between US$1 million and US$1.5 million. 3.0 tesla scanners often cost between US$2 million and US$2.3 million. Construction of MRI suites can cost up to US$500,000, or more, depending on project scope.

Looking through an MRI scanner.

MRI scanners have been significant sources of revenue for healthcare providers in the US. This is because of favorable reimbursement rates from insurers and federal government programs. Insurance reimbursement is provided in two components, an equipment charge for the actual performance of the MRI scan and professional charge for the radiologist's review of the images and/or data. In the US Northeast, an equipment charge might be $3,500 and a professional charge might be $350 ^[48] although the actual fees received by the equipment owner and interpreting physician are often significantly less and depend on the rates negotiated with insurance companies or determined by governmental action as in the Medicare Fee Schedule. For example, an orthopedic surgery group in Illinois billed a charge of $1,116 for a knee MRI in 2007 but the Medicare reimbursement in 2007 was only $470.91.^[49] Many insurance companies require preapproval of an MRI procedure as a condition for coverage.

In the US, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 significantly reduced reimbursement rates paid by federal insurance programs for the equipment component of many scans, shifting the economic landscape. Many private insurers have followed suit.^{[citation needed]} In France, the cost of an MRI exam is approximately 150 Euros. This covers three basic scans including one with an intravenous contrast agent, as well as a consultation with the technician and a written report to the patient's physician.^{[citation needed]}

Safety

A number of features of MRI scanning can give rise to risks.

These include:

• Powerful magnetic fields
• Cryogenic liquids
• Noise
• Claustrophobia

In addition, in cases where MRI contrast agents are used, these also typically have associated risks.

Magnetic field

Most forms of medical or biostimulation implants are generally considered contraindications for MRI scanning. These include pacemakers, vagus nerve stimulators, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators, loop recorders, insulin pumps, cochlear implants, deep brain stimulators and capsules retained from capsule endoscopy. Patients are therefore always asked for complete information about all implants before entering the room for an MRI scan. Several deaths have been reported in patients with pacemakers who have undergone MRI scanning without appropriate precautions.^{[citation needed]} To reduce such risks, implants are increasingly being developed to make them able to be safely scanned,^[50] and specialized protocols have been developed to permit the safe scanning of selected implants and pacing devices. Cardiovascular stents are considered safe, however.^[51]

Ferromagnetic foreign bodies such as shell fragments, or metallic implants such as surgical prostheses and aneurysm clips are also potential risks. Interaction of the magnetic and radio frequency fields with such objects can lead to trauma due to movement of the object in the magnetic field or thermal injury from radio-frequency induction heating of the object.^{[citation needed]}

Titanium and its alloys are safe from movement from the magnetic field.

In the United States a classification system for implants and ancillary clinical devices has been developed by ASTM International and is now the standard supported by the US Food and Drug Administration:

• 

  MR Safe sign
  MR-Safe — The device or implant is completely non-magnetic, non-electrically conductive, and non-RF reactive, eliminating all of the primary potential threats during an MRI procedure.
• 

  MR Conditional sign
  MR-Conditional — A device or implant that may contain magnetic, electrically conductive or RF-reactive components that is safe for operations in proximity to the MRI, provided the conditions for safe operation are defined and observed (such as 'tested safe to 1.5 teslas' or 'safe in magnetic fields below 500 gauss in strength').
• 

  MR Unsafe sign
  MR-Unsafe — Nearly self-explanatory, this category is reserved for objects that are significantly ferromagnetic and pose a clear and direct threat to persons and equipment within the magnet room.

The very high strength of the magnetic field can also cause "missile-effect" accidents, where ferromagnetic objects are attracted to the center of the magnet, and there have been incidences of injury and death.^[52][53] To reduce the risks of projectile accidents, ferromagnetic objects and devices are typically prohibited in proximity to the MRI scanner and patients undergoing MRI examinations are required to remove all metallic objects, often by changing into a gown or scrubs and ferromagnetic detection devices are used by some sites.^[54][55]

There is no evidence for biological harm from even very powerful static magnetic fields.^[56]

Radio frequency energy

A powerful radio transmitter is needed for excitation of proton spins. This can heat the body to the point of risk of hyperthermia in patients, particularly in obese patients or those with thermoregulation disorders^{[citation needed]}. Several countries have issued restrictions on the maximum specific absorption rate that a scanner may produce.

Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS)

The rapid switching on and off of the magnetic field gradients is capable of causing nerve stimulation. Volunteers report a twitching sensation when exposed to rapidly switched fields, particularly in their extremities.^[57][58] The reason the peripheral nerves are stimulated is that the changing field increases with distance from the center of the gradient coils (which more or less coincides with the center of the magnet).^[59] Note however that when imaging the head, the heart is far off-center and induction of even a tiny current into the heart must be avoided at all costs.^{[citation needed]} Although PNS was not a problem for the slow, weak gradients used in the early days of MRI, the strong, rapidly switched gradients used in techniques such as EPI, fMRI, diffusion MRI, etc. are indeed capable of inducing PNS. American and European regulatory agencies insist that manufacturers stay below specified dB/dt limits (dB/dt is the change in field per unit time) or else prove that no PNS is induced for any imaging sequence. As a result of dB/dt limitation, commercial MRI systems cannot use the full rated power of their gradient amplifiers.

Acoustic noise

Switching of field gradients causes a change in the Lorentz force experienced by the gradient coils, producing minute expansions and contractions of the coil itself. As the switching is typically in the audible frequency range, the resulting vibration produces loud noises (clicking or beeping). This is most marked with high-field machines^[60] and rapid-imaging techniques in which sound intensity can reach 120 dB(A) (equivalent to a jet engine at take-off),^[61] and therefore appropriate ear protection is essential for anyone inside the MRI scanner room during the examination.^[62]

Cryogens

As described in Physics of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, many MRI scanners rely on cryogenic liquids to enable superconducting capabilities of the electromagnetic coils within. Though the cryogenic liquids used are non-toxic, their physical properties present specific hazards.

An unintentional shut-down of a superconducting electromagnet, an event known as "quench", involves the rapid boiling of liquid helium from the device. If the rapidly expanding helium cannot be dissipated through an external vent, sometimes referred to as 'quench pipe', it may be released into the scanner room where it may cause displacement of the oxygen and present a risk of asphyxiation.^[63]

Oxygen deficiency monitors are usually used as a safety precaution. Liquid helium, the most commonly used cryogen in MRI, undergoes near explosive expansion as it changes from liquid to a gaseous state. The use of an oxygen monitor is important to ensure that oxygen levels safe for patient/physicians. Rooms built in support of superconducting MRI equipment should be equipped with pressure relief mechanisms^[64] and an exhaust fan, in addition to the required quench pipe.

Because a quench results in rapid loss of cryogens from the magnet, recommissioning the magnet is expensive and time-consuming. Spontaneous quenches are uncommon, but a quench may also be triggered by equipment malfunction, improper cryogen fill technique, contaminants inside the cryostat, or extreme magnetic or vibrational disturbances.

Contrast agents

Main article: MRI contrast agent

The most commonly used intravenous contrast agents are based on chelates of gadolinium. In general, these agents have proved safer than the iodinated contrast agents used in X-ray radiography or CT. Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring in approx. 0.03–0.1%.^[65] Of particular interest is the lower incidence of nephrotoxicity, compared with iodinated agents, when given at usual doses—this has made contrast-enhanced MRI scanning an option for patients with renal impairment, who would otherwise not be able to undergo contrast-enhanced CT.^[66]

Although gadolinium agents have proved useful for patients with renal impairment, in patients with severe renal failure requiring dialysis there is a risk of a rare but serious illness, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, that may be linked to the use of certain gadolinium-containing agents. The most frequently linked is gadodiamide, but other agents have been linked too.^[67] Although a causal link has not been definitively established, current guidelines in the United States are that dialysis patients should only receive gadolinium agents where essential, and that dialysis should be performed as soon as possible after the scan to remove the agent from the body promptly.^[68][69] In Europe, where more gadolinium-containing agents are available, a classification of agents according to potential risks has been released.^[70][71] Recently a new contrast agent named gadoxetate, brand name Eovist (US) or Primovist (EU), was approved for diagnostic use: this has the theoretical benefit of a dual excretion path.^[72]

Pregnancy

No effects of MRI on the fetus have been demonstrated.^[73] In particular, MRI avoids the use of ionizing radiation, to which the fetus is particularly sensitive. However, as a precaution, current guidelines recommend that pregnant women undergo MRI only when essential. This is particularly the case during the first trimester of pregnancy, as organogenesis takes place during this period. The concerns in pregnancy are the same as for MRI in general, but the fetus may be more sensitive to the effects—particularly to heating and to noise. However, one additional concern is the use of contrast agents; gadolinium compounds are known to cross the placenta and enter the fetal bloodstream, and it is recommended that their use be avoided.

Despite these concerns, MRI is rapidly growing in importance as a way of diagnosing and monitoring congenital defects of the fetus because it can provide more diagnostic information than ultrasound and it lacks the ionizing radiation of CT. MRI without contrast agents is the imaging mode of choice for pre-surgical, in-utero diagnosis and evaluation of fetal tumors, primarily teratomas, facilitating open fetal surgery, other fetal interventions, and planning for procedures (such as the EXIT procedure) to safely deliver and treat babies whose defects would otherwise be fatal.

Claustrophobia and discomfort

MRI scans can be unpleasant. Older closed bore MRI systems have a fairly long tube or tunnel. The part of the body being imaged must lie at the center of the magnet, which is at the absolute center of the tunnel. Because scan times on these older scanners may be long (occasionally up to 40 minutes for the entire procedure), people with even mild claustrophobia are sometimes unable to tolerate an MRI scan without management. Some modern scanners have larger bores (up to 70 cm) and scan times are shorter. This means that claustrophobia could be less of an issue, and additional patients may now find MRI to be a tolerable procedure.

Nervous patients may still find the following strategies helpful:

• Advance preparation
  • visiting the scanner to see the room and practice lying on the table
  • visualization techniques
  • chemical sedation
  • general anesthesia
• Coping while inside the scanner
  • having a loved one in the room to hold hand, reassure them, etc.
  • holding a "panic button"
  • closing eyes as well as covering them (e.g. washcloth, eye mask)
  • listening to music on headphones or watching a movie, using mirror-glasses and a projection screen or via a Head-mounted display, while in the machine.

Many newer MRI systems place a diagonal mirror above the eyes to allow the patient to look down the tunnel rather than at the bore wall immediately above their faces.

Alternative scanner designs, such as open or upright systems, can also be helpful where these are available. Though open scanners have increased in popularity, they produce inferior scan quality because they operate at lower magnetic fields than closed scanners. However, commercial 1.5 tesla open systems have recently become available, providing much better image quality than previous lower field strength open models.^[74]

For babies and young children chemical sedation or general anesthesia are the norm, as these subjects cannot be instructed to hold still during the scanning session. Obese patients and pregnant women may find the MRI machine to be a tight fit. Pregnant women may also have difficulty lying on their backs for an hour or more without moving.

Guidance

Safety issues, including the potential for biostimulation device interference, movement of ferromagnetic bodies, and incidental localized heating, have been addressed in the American College of Radiology's White Paper on MR Safety, which was originally published in 2002 and expanded in 2004. The ACR White Paper on MR Safety has been rewritten and was released early in 2007 under the new title ACR Guidance Document for Safe MR Practices.
In December 2007, the Medicines in Healthcare product Regulation Agency (MHRA), a UK healthcare regulatory body, issued their Safety Guidelines for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Equipment in Clinical Use.
In February 2008, the Joint Commission, a US healthcare accrediting organization, issued a Sentinel Event Alert #38, their highest patient safety advisory, on MRI safety issues.
In July 2008, the United States Veterans Administration, a federal governmental agency serving the healthcare needs of former military personnel, issued a substantial revision to their MRI Design Guide, which includes physical or facility safety considerations.

The European Physical Agents Directive

The European Physical Agents (Electromagnetic Fields) Directive is legislation adopted in European legislature. Originally scheduled to be required by the end of 2008, each individual state within the European Union must include this directive in its own law by the end of 2012. Some member nations passed complying legislation and are now attempting to repeal their state laws in expectation that the final version of the EU Physical Agents Directive will be substantially revised prior to the revised adoption date.

The directive applies to occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields (not medical exposure) and was intended to limit workers’ acute exposure to strong electromagnetic fields, as may be found near electricity substations, radio or television transmitters or industrial equipment. However, the regulations impact significantly on MRI, with separate sections of the regulations limiting exposure to static magnetic fields, changing magnetic fields and radio frequency energy. Field strength limits are given, which may not be exceeded. An employer may commit a criminal offense by allowing a worker to exceed an exposure limit, if that is how the Directive is implemented in a particular member state.

The Directive is based on the international consensus of established effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields, and in particular the advice of the European Commissions's advisor, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The aims of the Directive, and the ICNIRP guidelines it is based on, are to prevent exposure to potentially harmful fields. The actual limits in the Directive are very similar to the limits advised by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, with the exception of the frequencies produced by the gradient coils, where the IEEE limits are significantly higher.

Many Member States of the EU already have either specific EMF regulations or (as in the UK) a general requirement under workplace health and safety legislation to protect workers against electromagnetic fields. In almost all cases the existing regulations are aligned with the ICNIRP limits so that the Directive should, in theory, have little impact on any employer already meeting their legal responsibilities.

The introduction of the Directive has brought to light an existing potential issue with occupational exposures to MRI fields. There are at present very few data on the number or types of MRI practice that might lead to exposures in excess of the levels of the Directive.^[75][76] There is a justifiable concern amongst MRI practitioners that if the Directive were to be enforced more vigorously than existing legislation, the use of MRI might be restricted, or working practices of MRI personnel might have to change.

In the initial draft a limit of static field strength to 2 T was given. This has since been removed from the regulations, and whilst it is unlikely to be restored as it was without a strong justification, some restriction on static fields may be reintroduced after the matter has been considered more fully by ICNIRP. The effect of such a limit might be to restrict the installation, operation and maintenance of MRI scanners with magnets of 2 T and stronger. As the increase in field strength has been instrumental in developing higher resolution and higher performance scanners, this would be a significant step back. This is why it is unlikely to happen without strong justification.

Individual government agencies and the European Commission have now formed a working group to examine the implications on MRI and to try to address the issue of occupational exposures to electromagnetic fields from MRI.

Three-dimensional (3D) image reconstruction

The principle

Because contemporary MRI scanners offer isotropic, or near isotropic, resolution, display of images does not need to be restricted to the conventional axial images. Instead, it is possible for a software program to build a volume by 'stacking' the individual slices one on top of the other. The program may then display the volume in an alternative manner.

3D rendering techniques

Surface rendering

A threshold value of greyscale density is chosen by the operator (e.g. a level that corresponds to fat). A threshold level is set, using edge detection image processing algorithms. From this, a 3-dimensional model can be constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models can be constructed from various different thresholds, allowing different colors to represent each anatomical component such as bone, muscle, and cartilage. However, the interior structure of each element is not visible in this mode of operation.

Volume rendering

Surface rendering is limited in that it only displays surfaces that meet a threshold density, and only displays the surface closest to the imaginary viewer. In volume rendering, transparency and colors are used to allow a better representation of the volume to be shown in a single image - e.g. the bones of the pelvis could be displayed as semi-transparent, so that even at an oblique angle, one part of the image does not conceal another.

Image segmentation

Where different structures have similar threshold density, it can become impossible to separate them simply by adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is called segmentation, a manual or automatic procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from the image.

See also

Earth's field NMR (EFNMR) Electron-spin resonance (spin physics) History of brain imaging Medical imaging Magnetic immunoassay Jemris (open source MRI simulator)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (journal) Magnetic resonance microscopy Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) Magnetic resonance elastography Molecular breast imaging Neuroimaging software Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy Nobel Prize controversies

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) 2D-FT NMRI and Spectroscopy Relaxation Robinson oscillator Rabi cycle Virtopsy

References

1. ^ Squire LF, Novelline RA (1997). Squire's fundamentals of radiology (5th ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-83339-2. 
2. ^ Hendee, William R; Morgan, Christopher J (1984). "Magnetic Resonance Imaging Part I—Physical Principles". West J Med. 141 (4): 491–500. PMC 1021860. PMID 6506686. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1021860. 
3. ^ Luechinger, R.; Duru, F.; Candinas, R.; Boesiger, P. (2004). "Safety considerations for magnetic resonance imaging of pacemaker and ICD patients". Herzschrittmachertherapie und Elektrophysiologie 15: 73. doi:10.1007/s00399-004-0401-5. 
4. ^ Allen Counter, Åke Olofsson, S.; Olofsson, A.; Borg, E.; Bjelke, B.; Häggström, A.; Grahn, H. (2000). "Analysis of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Acoustic Noise Generated by a 4.7 T Experimental System". Acta Oto-Laryngologica 120 (6): 739–743. doi:10.1080/000164800750000270. PMID 11099151.  edit
5. ^ Carr, Herman Y. (July 2004). "Field Gradients in Early MRI". Physics Today (American Institute of Physics) 57 (7). Bibcode 2004PhT....57g..83C. doi:10.1063/1.1784322. 
6. ^ Lauterbur PC (1973). "Image Formation by Induced Local Interactions: Examples of Employing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance". Nature 242 (5394): 190–191. Bibcode 1973Natur.242..190L. doi:10.1038/242190a0. 
7. ^ ^{a b c} Filler AG (2010). "The history, development, and impact of computed imaging in neurological diagnosis and neurosurgery: CT, MRI, DTI". and-neurosurgery-ct-mri-and-dti.html Internet Journal of Neurosurgery 7 (1). 
8. ^ Lauterbur PC (1974). "Magnetic resonance zeugmatography". Pure and Applied Chemistry 40: 149–157. doi:10.1351/pac197440010149. 
9. ^ Damadian, R. V. "Tumor Detection by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance," Science, 171 (March 19, 1971): 1151–1153
10. ^ "The man who did not win". Sydney Morning Herald. 2003-10-17. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/10/16/1065917548433.html. Retrieved 2007-08-04. 
11. ^ "Scan and Deliver". Wall Street Journal. 2002-06-14. http://opinionjournal.com/taste/?id=110001844l. Retrieved 2007-08-04. 
12. ^ "Apparatus And Method For Detectin Cancer In Tissue". United States Patent and Trademark Office. http://www.google.com/patents?id=--AZAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
13. ^ NSF history
14. ^ "Does Dr. Raymond Damadian Deserve the Nobel Prize for Medicine?". The Armenian Reporter. 2003-11-08. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-89000528.html. Retrieved 2007-08-05. 
15. ^ "First MRI and ultrasound scanning". Benjamin S. Beck. http://benbeck.co.uk/firsts/scanning.htm. 
16. ^ "The "Indomitable" MRI". Smithsonian Institution. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/object_jun00.html?c=y&page=2. 
17. ^ Damadian R, Goldsmith M, Minkoff L (1977). "NMR in cancer: XVI. Fonar image of the live human body". Physiological Chemistry and Physics 9: 97–100. 
18. ^ Hinshaw DS, Bottomley PA, Holland GN (1977). "Radiographic thin-section image of the human wrist by nuclear magnetic resonance". Nature 270 (5639): 722–723. Bibcode 1977Natur.270..722H. doi:10.1038/270722a0. 
19. ^ Filler, AG (2009). "The history, development, and impact of computed imaging in neurological diagnosis and neurosurgery: CT, MRI, DTI". Nature Precedings. doi:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.2. 
20. ^ H.F. Judso (20 October 2003). "No Nobel Prize for whining". New York Times. 
21. ^ MacWilliams, Bryon (2003). "News & Views: Russian claims first in magnetic imaging". Nature 426 (6965): 375. doi:10.1038/426375a. PMID 14647349. 
22. ^ "Best Regards to Alfred Nobel". http://www.inauka.ru/english/article36919.html. Retrieved 2009-10-16. 
23. ^ Carr, Herman (2004). "Letter: Field Gradients in Early MR". Physics Today 57 (7): 83. Bibcode 2004PhT....57g..83C. doi:10.1063/1.1784322. 
24. ^ "T1 Weighted", www.mr-tip.com
25. ^ Le Bihan D, Breton E, Lallemand D, Grenier P, Cabanis E, Laval-Jeantet M. (November 1986). "MR imaging of intravoxel incoherent motions: Application to diffusion and perfusion in neurologic disorders". Radiology. 161 (2): 401–7. PMID 3763909. 
26. ^ Moseley ME, Cohen Y, Mintorovitch J, Chileuitt L, Shimizu H, Kucharczyk J, Wendland MF, Weinstein PR. (1990). "Early detection of regional cerebral ischemia in cats: Comparison of diffusion- and T₂-weighted MRI and spectroscopy". Magn Reson Med 14 (2): 330–46. doi:10.1002/mrm.1910140218. PMID 2345513. 
27. ^ Borthakur, A; Mellon, E, Niyogi, S, Witschey, W, Kneeland, JB, Reddy, R (2006 Nov). "Sodium and T1rho MRI for molecular and diagnostic imaging of articular cartilage.". NMR in biomedicine 19 (7): 781-821. PMID 17075961. 
28. ^ De Coene B, Hajnal JV, Gatehouse P, Longmore DB, White SJ, Oatridge A, Pennock JM, Young IR, Bydder GM. (November 1992). "MR of the brain using fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) pulse sequences". Am J Neuroradiol 13 (6): 1555–64. PMID 1332459. 
29. ^ Haacke, E Mark; Brown, Robert F; Thompson, Michael; Venkatesan, Ramesh (1999). Magnetic resonance imaging: Physical principles and sequence design. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-35128-8. 
30. ^ Ridgway JP, Smith MA (June 1986). "A technique for velocity imaging using magnetic resonance imaging". Br J Radiol 59 (702): 603–7. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-59-702-603. PMID 3708269. 
31. ^ Njemanze PC, Beck OJ (1989). "MR-gated intracranial CSF dynamics: Evaluation of CSF pulsatile flow". AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 10 (1): 77–80. PMID 2492733. 
32. ^ Rosen Y, Lenkinski RE (2007). "The Recent advances in magnetic resonance neurospectroscopy". Neurotherapeutics 27 (3): 330–45. doi:10.1016/j.nurt.2007.04.009. PMID 17599700. 
33. ^ Golder W (2007). "Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in clinical oncology". Onkologie 27 (3): 304–9. doi:10.1159/000077983. PMID 15249722. 
34. ^ Thulborn KR, Waterton JC, Matthews PM, Radda GK (February 1982). "Oxygenation dependence of the transverse relaxation time of water protons in whole blood at high field". Biochim. Biophys. Acta 714 (2): 265–70. doi:10.1016/0304-4165(82)90333-6. PMID 6275909. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0304-4165(82)90333-6. 
35. ^ H. E. Cline, J. F. Schenck, K. Hynynen, R. D. Watkins, S. P. Souza, and F. A. Jolesz. “MR-guided focused ultrasound surgery,” J Comput Assist Tomogr 16(6), 956-65 (1992).
36. ^ "Radiology". http://radiology.rsna.org/content/204/1/272.long. Retrieved 2 August 2010. (subscription required)
37. ^ Wattjes MP, Lutterbey GG, Gieseke J, et al. (1 January 2007). "Double inversion recovery brain imaging at 3T: Diagnostic value in the detection of multiple sclerosis lesions". AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 28 (1): 54–9. PMID 17213424. http://www.ajnr.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17213424. 
38. ^ Nelson F, Poonawalla AH, Hou P, Huang F, Wolinsky JS, Narayana PA (October 2007). "Improved identification of intracortical lesions in multiple sclerosis with phase-sensitive inversion recovery in combination with fast double inversion recovery MR imaging". AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 28 (9): 1645–9. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A0645. PMID 17885241. 
39. ^ Nelson F, Poonawalla A, Hou P, Wolinsky JS, Narayana PA (November 2008). "3D MPRAGE improves classification of cortical lesions in multiple sclerosis". Mult Scler. 14 (9): 1214–9. doi:10.1177/1352458508094644. PMC 2650249. PMID 18952832. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2650249. 
40. ^ Brant-Zawadzki M, Gillan GD, Nitz WR (March 1992). "MP RAGE: A three-dimensional, T₁-weighted, gradient-echo sequence—initial experience in the brain". Radiology 182 (3): 769–75. PMID 1535892. http://radiology.rsnajnls.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1535892. 
41. ^ "Terranova-MRI Earth's Field MRI teaching system". Magritek.com. http://www.magritek.com/terranova.html. Retrieved 2010-08-02. 
42. ^ I. M. Savukov and M. V. Romalis (2005). "MNR Detection with an Atomic Magnetometer" (PDF). Physical Review Letters 94. arXiv:physics/0411163. Bibcode 2005PhRvL..94l3001S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.123001. http://www.atomic.princeton.edu/romalis/magnetometer/papers/Savukov%20and%20Romalis%20-%20NMR%20Detection%20with%20an%20Atomic%20Magnetometer.pdf.  Blog comment:
    • "Hi-res, cheap & portable MRI". Neurophilosophy (blog). http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/09/06/hi-res-cheap-portable-mri/. 
43. ^ Raftery D (August 2006). "MRI without the magnet". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 103 (34): 12657–8. Bibcode 2006PNAS..10312657R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605625103. PMC 1568902. PMID 16912110. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1568902. 
44. ^ Wu Y, Chesler DA, Glimcher MJ, et al. (February 1999). "Multinuclear solid-state three-dimensional MRI of bone and synthetic calcium phosphates". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 (4): 1574–8. Bibcode 1999PNAS...96.1574W. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.4.1574. PMC 15521. PMID 9990066. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9990066. 
45. ^ Mietchen, D.; Aberhan, M.; Manz, B.; Hampe, O.; Mohr, B.; Neumann, C.; Volke, F. (2008). "Three-dimensional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of fossils across taxa". Biogeosciences 5 (1): 25–41. doi:10.5194/bg-5-25-2008. http://direct.sref.org/1726-4189/bg/2008-5-25. Retrieved 2008-04-08. 
46. ^ Allen ED, Byrd SE, Darling CF, Tomita T, Wilczynski MA. (1993). "The clinical and radiological evaluation of primary brain neoplasms in children, Part II: Radiological evaluation". J Natl Med Assoc. 85 (7): 546–53. PMC 2568155. PMID 8350377. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2568155. 
47. ^ Deck MD, Henschke C, Lee BC, Zimmerman RD, Hyman RA, Edwards J, Saint Louis LA, Cahill PT, Stein H, Whalen JP. (March 1989). "Computed tomography versus magnetic resonance imaging of the brain. A collaborative interinstitutional study". Clin Imaging 13 (1): 2–15. doi:10.1016/0899-7071(89)90120-4. PMID 2743188. 
48. ^ Stamford Hospital price quotation October 2008, Stamford CT US
49. ^ Gordon AC, et al "Over-utilization of MRI in the osteoarthritis patient" AAOS meeting 2008; P145.
50. ^ http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3771
51. ^ Jost, C.; Kumar V, V. (1998). "Are Current Cardiovascular Stents MRI Safe?". The Journal of invasive cardiology 10 (8): 477–479. PMID 10762825.  edit
52. ^ Randal C. Archibold, "Hospital Details Failures Leading to M.R.I. Fatality," The New York Times, August 22, 2001
53. ^ Donald G. McNeil Jr, "M.R.I.'s Strong Magnets Cited in Accidents," The New York Times, August 19, 2005.
54. ^ "ACR Guidance Document for Safe MR Practices: 2007". http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/MRSafety/safe_mr07.aspx. Retrieved 2 August 2010. 
55. ^ "MRI Design Guide". http://www.Mednovus.com/downloads/VA_MRI_Design_Guide-08.pdf. Retrieved 2 August 2010. 
56. ^ "Biological effects of exposure to magnetic resonance imaging: an overview", Domenico Formica and Sergio Silvestr, BioMedical Engineering OnLine (2004)
57. ^ MS Cohen, RM Weisskoff, RR Rzedzian and HL Kantor (1990). "Sensory stimulation by time-varying magnetic fields". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 14 (2): 409–414. doi:10.1002/mrm.1910140226. PMID 2345521. 
58. ^ TF Budinger, H Fischer, D Hentschel, HE Reinfelder and F Schmitt (1991). "Physiological effects of fast oscillating magnetic field gradients". J Comput Assist Tomogr 15 (6): 909–914. 
59. ^ J Reilly (1989). "Peripheral nerve stimulation by induced electric currents: exposure to time-varying magnetic fields". Medical & Biological Engineering and Computing 27 (2): 101–110. doi:10.1007/BF02446217. PMID 2689806. 
60. ^ "The Evolution of Magnetic Resonance Imaging: 3T MRI in Clinical Applications", Terry Duggan-Jahns, www.eradimaging.com
61. ^ Price DL, de Wilde JP, Papadaki AM, Curran JS, Kitney RI (January 2001). "Investigation of acoustic noise on 15 MRI scanners from 0.2 T to 3 T". Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 13 (2): 288–293. doi:10.1002/1522-2586(200102)13:2<288::AID-JMRI1041>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID 11169836. 
62. ^ The Open University 2007: Understanding Cardiovascular Diseases, course book for the lesson SK121 Understanding cardiovascular diseases, printed by University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 9780749226770 (can be found at OUW), pages 220 and 224.
63. ^ Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, Bell C, et al. (2007). "ACR Guidance Document for Safe MR Practices: 2007". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 188 (6): 1–27. doi:10.2214/AJR.06.1616. PMID 17515363. http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/MRSafety/safe_mr07.aspx.  page 22.
64. ^ International Electrotechnical Commission 2008: Medical Electrical Equipment - Part 2-33: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of magnetic resonance equipment for medical diagnosis, manufacturers' trade standards [1], published by International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 2-8318-9626-6 (can be found for purchase at [2]).
65. ^ Murphy KJ, Brunberg JA, Cohan RH (1 October 1996). "Adverse reactions to gadolinium contrast media: A review of 36 cases". AJR Am J Roentgenol 167 (4): 847–9. PMID 8819369. http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8819369. 
66. ^ "ACR guideline, 2005"
67. ^ H.S. Thomsen, S.K. Morcos and P. Dawson (November 2006). "Is there a causal relation between the administration of gadolinium-based contrast media and the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF)?". Clinical Radiology 61 (11): 905–6. doi:10.1016/j.crad.2006.09.003. PMID 17018301. 
68. ^ "FDA Drug Safety Communication: New warnings for using gadolinium-based contrast agents in patients with kidney dysfunction". Information on Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 23 December 2010. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm223966.htm. Retrieved 12 March 2011. 
69. ^ "FDA Public Health Advisory: Gadolinium-containing Contrast Agents for Magnetic Resonance Imaging"
70. ^ [3]^{[dead link]}
71. ^ "ismrm.org MRI Questions and Answers" (PDF). http://www.ismrm.org/special/EMEA2.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-02. 
72. ^ "Response to the FDA's May 23, 2007, Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis Update1 — Radiology". Radiology.rsna.org. 2007-09-12. http://radiology.rsna.org/content/246/1/11.full?searchid=1&HITS=10&hits=10&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT&maxtoshow=&RESULTFORMAT=&author1=kanal&FIRSTINDEX=0. Retrieved 2010-08-02. 
73. ^ Ibrahim A. Alorainy, Fahad B. Albadr, Abdullah H. Abujamea (2006). "Attitude towards MRI safety during pregnancy". Ann Saudi Med 26 (4): 306–9. PMID 16885635. http://www.saudiannals.net/pdfs/06-201.pdf. ^{[dead link]}
74. ^ "Siemens Introduces First 1.5 Tesla Open Bore MRI". Medical.siemens.com. 2004-07-29. http://www.medical.siemens.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/PressReleaseView~q_catalogId~e_-1~a_catTree~e_100005,13839,17712~a_langId~e_-1~a_pageId~e_50677~a_storeId~e_10001.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-02. 
75. ^ Bassen, H; Schaefer, D J. ; Zaremba, L; Bushberg, J; Ziskin, M [S]; Foster, K R. (2005). "IEEE Committee on Man and Radiation (COMAR) technical information statement "Exposure of medical personnel to electromagnetic fields from open magnetic resonance imaging systems"". Health Physics 89 (6): 684–9. doi:10.1097/01.HP.0000172545.71238.15. PMID 16282801. 
76. ^ HSE 2007,RR570:Assessment of electromagnetic fields around magnetic resonance (MRI) equipment. MCL-T Ltd, London

Further reading

• Simon, Merrill; Mattson, James S (1996). The pioneers of NMR and magnetic resonance in medicine: The story of MRI. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University Press. ISBN 0-9619243-1-4. 
• Haacke, E Mark; Brown, Robert F; Thompson, Michael; Venkatesan, Ramesh (1999). Magnetic resonance imaging: Physical principles and sequence design. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-35128-8. 
• Lee, S. C. et al. (2001). "One Micrometer Resolution NMR Microscopy". J. Magn. Res 150 (2): 207–213. Bibcode 2001JMagR.150..207L. doi:10.1006/jmre.2001.2319. 

External links

• A Guided Tour of MRI: An introduction for laypeople National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
• The Basics of MRI. Underlying physics and technical aspects.
• Video: What to Expect During Your MRI Exam from the Institute for Magnetic Resonance Safety, Education, and Research (IMRSER)
• International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine
• Trends in Biotechnology Volume 28, Issue 7, July 2010, Pages 363-370
• Blue Plaque commemorating the manufacture of the first commercial MRI whole body scanner at Osney Mead, Oxford
• Royal Institution Lecture - MRI: A Window on the Human Body
• Animal Imaging Database (AIDB)
• Tutorial for performing an MRI Arthrogram
• MRI & contrast media in Medicine
• [http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/comcom/feature69.htm MRI: A Noble Diagnostic Medical Tool and

a Window to the Brain and Body]