Korean diaspora

Korean diaspora
Hangul	동포 / 교포
Hanja	同胞 / 僑胞
Revised Romanization	dongpo / gyopo
McCune–Reischauer	tongp'o / kyop'o

Overseas Koreans
한민족 (韓民族)

Total population
6.8 million (est.)
Regions with significant populations
People's Republic of China 2,336,771 [1]  United States 2,102,283 [1][2]  Japan 912,770 [1]  Canada 223,322 [1]  Russia 222,027 [1][3]  Uzbekistan 175,939 [1]  Australia 150,873 [4]  Philippines 115,400 [1]  Kazakhstan 103,952 [1]  Vietnam 84,566 [1]  Brazil 48,419 [1]  United Kingdom 45,925 [1]  Indonesia 31,760 [1]  Germany 31,248 [1]  New Zealand 30,792 [1]  Argentina 22,024 [1]  Thailand 20,200 [1]  Kyrgyzstan 18,810 [1]  France 14,738 [1]  Malaysia 14,580 [1]  Singapore 13,509 [1]  Ukraine 13,001 [1]  Mexico 12,072 [1]  Guatemala 9,921 [1]  India 8,337 [1]  Paraguay 5,229 [1]  Cambodia 4,772 [1]  Italy 4,203 [1]  South Africa 3,949  Spain 3,647  Republic of China 3,158  United Arab Emirates 3,114
Languages
Korean, Various
Religion
Mahayana Buddhism, Christianity, Cheondoism. Background of Confucianism and Korean shamanism.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
Related ethnic groups
Korean people

The Korean diaspora consists of roughly seven million people, both descendants of early emigrants from the Korean peninsula, as well as more recent expatriates. Nearly four-fifths live in just three countries: China, Japan, and the United States.^[1] Countries with greater than 0.5% Korean minorities are Japan, New Zealand, the United States, Kazakhstan, Canada, Uzbekistan and Australia.

Terminology

North Korea refers to Korean citizens living outside the Korean peninsula as haeoe gungmin (해외국민, "overseas citizens"), while South Korea uses the term jaeoe gungmin (재외국민, "citizens abroad").^[12] Another broader term is gyopo (교포, also spelled kyopo); however, the term has come to have negative connotations as referring to people who, as a result of living as sojourners outside the "home country", has lost touch with their Korean roots. As a result, others prefer to use the term dongpo (동포, roughly "brethren" or "people of the same ancestry"). Dongpo has a more transnational implication, emphasising links among various overseas Korean groups, while gyopo has more of a purely national connotation referring to the Korean state.^[13][14]

History

Origins

Prior to the modern era, Korea had been a territorially stable polity for centuries; as Rogers Brubaker and Jaeeun Kim describe it, "The congruence of territory, polity, and population was taken for granted".^[15] Large-scale emigration from Korea began as early as the mid-1860s, mainly into the Russian Far East and Northeast China; these emigrants became the ancestors of the 2 million Koreans in China and several hundred thousand ethnic Koreans in Central Asia.^[16][17]

Korea under Japanese rule

Main article: Korea under Japanese rule

During the Japanese colonial period of 1910-1945, Koreans were often recruited or forced into labour service to work in mainland Japan, Karafuto Prefecture (Sakhalin), and Manchukuo, especially in the 1930s and early 1940s; the ones who chose to remain in Japan at the end of the war became known as Zainichi Koreans, while the roughly 40 thousand who were trapped in Karafuto after the Soviet invasion are typically referred to as Sakhalin Koreans.^[18][19] According to the statistics at Immigration Bureau of Japan, there were 901,284 Koreans resident in Japan as of 2005^[update], of which 515,570 were permanent residents, and another 284,840 were naturalized citizens.^[20][21] Koreans amount to 40.4% of the non-Japanese population of the country. Three-quarters of the Koreans living in Japan are Japanese-born, and most are legal aliens.^{[citation needed]}

Aside from migration within the Empire of Japan or its puppet state of Manchukuo, some Koreans also escaped Japanese-ruled territory entirely, heading to Shanghai, a major centre of the Korean independence movement, or to the already-established Korean communities of the Russian Far East. However, the latter would find themselves deported to Central Asia in 1938.^{[citation needed]}

After the liberation

Korea regained its independence in 1945 at the end of World War II, but was divided into North and South. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, ethnic Koreans in China (Chaoxianzu) became officially recognised as one of the 56 ethnic groups of the country. They are considered to be one of the "major minorities". Their population grew to about 2 million; they stayed mostly in northeastern China, where their ancestors had initially settled. Their largest population was concentrated in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin Province, where they numbered 854,000 in 1997.^[17][22]

Korean emigration to the United States is known to have begun as early as 1903, but the Korean American community did not grow to a significant size until after the passage of the Immigration Reform Act of 1965. ^[23] Between 1.5 and 2 million Koreans now live in the United States, mostly in metropolitan areas.^[1][24] A handful are descended from laborers who migrated to Hawaii in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A significant number are descended from orphans of the Korean War, in which the United States was a major ally of South Korea and provided the bulk of the United Nations troops that served there. Thousands were adopted by American (mostly Caucasian) families in the years following the war, when their plight was covered on television. The vast majority, however, immigrated or are descended from those who immigrated after the Hart-Cellar Act of 1965 abolished national immigration quotas.

Europe and Latin America were also minor destinations for post-war Korean emigration. Korean immigration to Latin America was documented as early as the 1950s; North Korean prisoners of war choose to emigrate to Chile in 1953 and Argentina in 1956 under the auspices of the Red Cross. However, the majority of Korean settlement occurred in the late 1960s. As the South Korean economy continued to expand in the 1980s, investors from South Korea came to Latin America and established small businesses in the textiles industry.^[25] Brazil has Latin America's largest Koreatown in São Paulo; there are also Koreatowns in cities such as Buenos Aires, Argentina; Guatemala City, Guatemala; Lima, Peru; and Santiago, Chile. Mexico City's Korean population is estimated to be around 30,000.^{[citation needed]} Korean immigrants are increasingly settling in urban centers of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela.

In the 1970s, however, Japan and the United States remained the top two destinations for South Korean emigrants, with each receiving more than a quarter of all emigration; the Middle East became the third most popular destination, with more than 800,000 Koreans going to Saudi Arabia between 1975 and 1985, and another 26,000 Koreans going to Iran. In contrast, aside from Germany (1.7% of all South Korean emigration in 1977) and Paraguay (1.0%), no European or Latin American destinations were even in the top ten for emigrants.^[26]

Shifting focus of emigration

Although immigration to the United States briefly became less attractive as a result of the 1992 Los Angeles riots, during which many Korean American immigrants saw their businesses destroyed by looters, the Los Angeles and New York City metropolitan areas still contain by far the largest populations of ethnic Koreans outside of Korea and continue to attract the largest share of Korean immigrants. In fact, the per capita Korean population of Bergen County, New Jersey, in the New York City Metropolitan Area, 6.3% by the 2010 United States Census,^[27] is the highest of any county in the United States, with eight of the nation's top ten municipalities by percentage of Korean population;^[28] while the concentration of Korean Americans in Palisades Park, New Jersey, within Bergen County, is the highest of any municipality in the United States,^[29] at 52% of the population.^[30] South Korean media reports on the riots increased public awareness of the long working hours and harsh conditions faced by immigrants to the United States in the 1990s.^[31] Instead, with the development of the South Korean economy, the focus of emigration from Korea began to shift from developed nations towards developing nations. With the 1992 normalisation of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea, many citizens of South Korea started to settle instead in China, attracted by business opportunities generated by the reform and opening up of China and the low cost of living. Large new communities of South Koreans have formed in Beijing, Shanghai, and Qingdao; as of 2006^[update], their population is estimated to be between 300,000 and 400,000.^[32] There is also a small community of Koreans in Hong Kong, mostly expatriate businessmen and their families; according to Hong Kong's 2001 census, they numbered roughly 5,200, making them the 12th-largest ethnic minority group.^[33] Southeast Asia has also seen an influx of South Koreans. Koreans in Vietnam have grown in number to around 30,000 since the 1992 normalisation of diplomatic relations, making them Vietnam's second-largest foreign community after the Taiwanese.^[34] Korean migration to the Philippines has also increased due to the tropical climate and low cost of living compared to South Korea; 370,000 Koreans visited the country in 2004, and roughly 46,000 Korean expatriates live there permanently.^[35] Though smaller, the number of Koreans in Cambodia has also grown rapidly, almost quadrupling between 2005 and 2009.^[1] They mostly reside in Phnom Penh, with a smaller number in Siam Reap. They are largely investors involved in the construction industry, though there are also some missionaries and NGO workers.^[36]

Return migration

Koreans born or settled overseas have been migrating back to both North and South Korea ever since the restoration of Korean independence; perhaps the most famous example is Kim Jong-Il, born in Vyatskoye, Khabarovsk Krai, where his father Kim Il-sung had been serving in the Red Army.^[37][38] Postwar migrations of Koreans from throughout the Japanese Empire back to the Korean peninsula were characterised both bureaucratically and popularly as "repatriation", a restoration of the congruence between the Korean population and its territory.^[39] The pre-colonial Korean state had not clearly laid out the boundaries of who was a citizen; however, the Japanese colonial government had registered all Koreans in a separate family registry, a separation which continued even if an individual Korean migrated to Manchuria or Japan; thus North and South Korea had a clear legal definition of who was a repatriating Korean, and did not have to create any special legal categories of national membership for them, the way Germany had done for post-World War II German expellees.^[40]

The largest-scale repatriation activities took place in Japan, where Chongryon sponsored the return of Zainichi Korean residents to North Korea; starting from late 1950s and early 1960s, with a trickle of repatriates continuing until as late as 1984, nearly 90,000 Zainichi Koreans resettled in the reclusive communist state, though their ancestral homes were in the South. However, word of the difficult economic and political conditions filtered back to Japan, decreasing the popularity of this option. Around one hundred such repatriates are believed to have later escaped from North Korea; the most famous is Kang Chol-Hwan, who published a book about his experience, The Aquariums of Pyongyang.^[41][42] South Korea, however, was a popular destination for Koreans who had settled in Manchukuo during the colonial period; returnees from Manchukuo such as Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan had a large influence on the process of nation-building in South Korea.^[43]

Until the 1980s, Soviet Koreans did not repatriate in any large numbers and played little role in defining the boundaries of membership in the Korean nation.^[44] However, roughly 1,000 Sakhalin Koreans are also estimated to have independently repatriated to the North in the decades after the end of World War II, when returning to their ancestral homes in the South was not an option due to the lack of Soviet relations with the South and Japan's refusal to grant them transit rights. In 1985, Japan began to fund the return of Sakhalin Koreans to South Korea; however, only an additional 1,500 took this offer, with the vast majority of the population remaining on Sakhalin or moving to the Russian Far East instead.^[45]

With the rise of the South Korean economy in the 1980s, economic motivations became increasingly prevalent in overseas Koreans' decisions of whether to repatriate and in which part of the peninsula to settle. 356,790 Chinese citizens have migrated to South Korea since the reform and opening up of China; almost two-thirds are estimated to be Chaoxianzu.^[46] Similarly, some Koryo-saram from Central Asia have also moved to South Korea as guest workers, to take advantage of the high wages offered by the growing economy; remittances from South Korea to Uzbekistan, for example, were estimated to exceed USD100 million in 2005.^[47] Return migration through arranged marriage is another option, portrayed in the 2005 South Korean film Wedding Campaign, directed by Hwang Byung-kook.^[48] However, the Koryo-saram often face the most difficulty integrating into Korean society due to their poor command of the Korean language and the fact that their dialect, Koryo-mar, differs significantly from the Seoul dialect considered standard in the South.^[47]

Until recently, return migration from the United States has been much less common than that from Japan or the former Soviet Union, as the economic push factor was far less than in 1960s Japan or post-Soviet collapse Central Asia. However, an increasing number of aspiring Korean American singers and actors, finding their career progress in Hollywood blocked, choose to go to South Korea through talent and modelling agencies; prominent examples include singer Brian Joo (of R&B duo Fly to the Sky) and actor Daniel Henney (who initially spoke no Korean).^{[49][50] [51]}

Statistics

Continent	Country	MOFAT statistics, 2009[1]	Proportion of Korean diaspora	Number of adopted Koreans[52]	Year range for adoption statistics	Local census statistics	Year of census
Asia	China	2,336,771	34.25%
Americas	United States	2,102,283	30.81%	107145	1953–2007	1555293	2007[24]
Asia	Japan	912,770	13.38%	226	1962–1982
Americas	Canada	223,322	3.27%	2103	1967–2007
Europe/Asia	Russia	222,027	3.25%			148,556	2002[3]
Asia	Uzbekistan	175,939	2.58%
Oceania	Australia	125,669	1.84%	3341	1969–2007	60873	2006[4]
Asia	Philippines	115,400	1.69%
Asia	Kazakhstan	103,952	1.52%			99700	1999[53]
Asia	Vietnam	84,566	1.24%
Americas	Brazil	48,419	0.71%
Europe	United Kingdom	45,295	0.66%	72	1958–1990
Asia	Indonesia	31,760	0.47%
Europe	Germany	31,248	0.46%	2352	1965–2002
Oceania	New Zealand	30,792	0.45%	559	1964–1984
Americas	Argentina	22,024	0.32%
Asia	Thailand	20,200	0.30%
Asia	Kyrgyzstan	18,810	0.28%			19784	1999[54]
Europe	France	14,738	0.22%	11155	1968–2007
Asia	Malaysia	14,580	0.21%
Asia	Singapore	13,509	0.20%
Europe	Ukraine	13,001	0.19%
Americas	Mexico	12,072	0.18%
Americas	Guatemala	9,921	0.15%
Asia	India	8,337	0.12%	3	1960–1964
Americas	Paraguay	5,229	0.08%	2	1969
Asia	Cambodia	4,772	0.07%
Europe	Italy	4,203	0.06%	382	1965–1981
Africa	South Africa	3,949	0.06%
Europe	Spain	3,647	0.05%	5	1968
Asia	Republic of China	3,158	0.05%	4	1967–1968
Asia	United Arab Emirates	3,114	0.05%
Asia	Qatar	2,365	0.03%
Asia	Mongolia	2,323	0.03%
Americas	Chile	2,249	0.03%
Europe	Austria	2,247	0.03%
Europe	Switzerland	2,141	0.03%	1111	1968–1997
Asia	Saudi Arabia	2,014	0.03%
Europe	Czech Republic	1,780	0.03%			1272	2009[55]
Asia	Tajikistan	1,762	0.03%
Europe	Netherlands	1,722	0.03%	4099	1969–2003	4561	2008[56]
Europe	Slovakia	1,495	0.02%
Europe	Sweden	1,434	0.02%	9221	1957–2007
Americas	Ecuador	1,418	0.02%
Europe/Asia	Turkey	1,396	0.02%	1	1969
Europe	Belarus	1,265	0.02%
Europe	Ireland	1,146	0.02%	12	1968–1975
Asia	Kuwait	1,058	0.02%
Europe	Hungary	1,053	0.02%
Asia	Bangladesh	1,046	0.02%
Europe	Poland	1,034	0.02%	7	1970
Africa	Egypt	976	0.01%
Oceania	Fiji	950	0.01%
Africa	Nigeria	920	0.01%
Asia	Myanmar	888	0.01%
Africa	Libya	854	0.01%
Asia	Sri Lanka	854	0.01%
Americas	Peru	812	0.01%
Europe	Belgium	743	0.01%	3697	1969–1995
Americas	Costa Rica	730	0.01%
Americas	Colombia	710	0.01%
Africa	Kenya	707	0.01%
Asia	Oman	699	0.01%
Americas	Bolivia	640	0.01%
Asia	Iran	614	0.01%
Asia	Israel	560	0.01%
Asia	Laos	547	0.01%
Americas	Nicaragua	531	0.01%
Asia	Pakistan	529	0.01%
Africa	Ghana	519	0.01%
Americas	Dominican Republic	518	0.01%
Europe	Norway	488	0.01%	6274	1995–2007
Europe	Romania	456	0.01%
Africa	Angola	455	0.01%
Asia	Turkmenistan	438	0.01%
Americas	Honduras	406	0.01%
Europe	Armenia	378	0.01%
Asia	Nepal	374	0.01%
Africa	Tanzania	360	0.01%
Africa	Morocco	358	0.01%
Europe	Greece	356	0.01%
Asia	Jordan	356	0.01%
Americas	Venezuela	325	0.00%
Americas	Panama	306	0.00%
Europe	Denmark	279	0.00%	8679	1965–2005
Americas	El Salvador	272	0.00%
Africa	Uganda	228	0.00%
Africa	Madagascar	226	0.00%
Asia	Yemen	222	0.00%
Oceania	Papua New Guinea	222	0.00%
Europe	Finland	213	0.00%	1	1984
Africa	Ethiopia	212	0.00%	1	1961
Asia	Bahrain	195	0.00%
Africa	Algeria	183	0.00%
Africa	Senegal	170	0.00%
Africa	Tunisia	170	0.00%	1	1969
Europe	Bulgaria	170	0.00%
Africa	Botswana	163	0.00%
Asia	Azerbaijan	163	0.00%
Asia	Afghanistan	159	0.00%
Europe	Portugal	159	0.00%
Africa	Cameroon	155	0.00%
Americas	Uruguay	152	0.00%
Africa	Côte d'Ivoire	141	0.00%
Africa	Zimbabwe	136	0.00%
Europe	Moldova	126	0.00%
Asia	Syria	121	0.00%
Asia	Lebanon	116	0.00%
Oceania	Palau	113	0.00%
Africa	Malawi	113	0.00%
Asia	Brunei	108	0.00%
Africa	Togo	105	0.00%
Europe	Malta	103	0.00%
Africa	Democratic Republic of the Congo	103	0.00%
Americas	Jamaica	102	0.00%
Africa	Sudan	99	0.00%
Africa	Gabon	90	0.00%
Africa	Zambia	84	0.00%
Africa	Mozambique	78	0.00%
Europe	Albania	72	0.00%
Europe	Serbia	68	0.00%
Americas	Suriname	66	0.00%
Asia	Iraq	62	0.00%
Africa	Rwanda	61	0.00%
Africa	Burkina Faso	59	0.00%
Africa	Sierra Leone	56	0.00%
Europe	Luxembourg	54	0.00%	554	1984–2007
Asia	Timor-Leste	52	0.00%
Europe	Croatia	50	0.00%
Americas	Haiti	47	0.00%
Oceania	Vanuatu	46	0.00%
Oceania	Tonga	46	0.00%
Europe	Latvia	46	0.00%
Africa	Guinea	43	0.00%
Oceania	Solomon Islands	42	0.00%
Europe	Lithuania	41	0.00%
Africa	Liberia	37	0.00%
Americas	Trinidad and Tobago	37	0.00%
Africa	Gambia	36	0.00%
Oceania	Marshall Islands	34	0.00%
Africa	Chad	32	0.00%
Africa	Mauritania	31	0.00%
Americas	Belize	30	0.00%
Europe	Slovenia	29	0.00%
Europe	Georgia	28	0.00%
Oceania	Federated States of Micronesia	25	0.00%
Africa	Swaziland	19	0.00%
Africa	Namibia	19	0.00%
Asia	Maldives	18	0.00%
Africa	Mali	18	0.00%
Asia	Palestine	15	0.00%
Africa	Congo	14	0.00%
Africa	Niger	14	0.00%
Africa	Equatorial Guinea	13	0.00%
Europe	Cyprus	11	0.00%
Africa	Mauritius	11	0.00%
Europe	Macedonia	10	0.00%
Europe	Iceland	10	0.00%
Africa	Guinea-Bissau	10	0.00%
Africa	Burundi	9	0.00%
Africa	Central African Republic	9	0.00%
Africa	Benin	8	0.00%
Africa	Eritrea	7	0.00%
Asia	Bhutan	7	0.00%
Americas	Barbados	7	0.00%
Europe	Bosnia and Herzegovina	6	0.00%
Europe	Estonia	5	0.00%
Americas	Saint Lucia	5	0.00%
Europe	Montenegro	3	0.00%
Africa	Comoros	3	0.00%
Europe	Monaco	2	0.00%
Africa	Cape Verde	2	0.00%
Oceania	Kiribati	1	0.00%
Europe	San Marino	1	0.00%
Americas	Guyana	1	0.00%
Total		6,822,720	100%

See also

• Overseas Chinese
• Japanese diaspora
• Immigration
• Asian Latin American

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae} 재외동포현황/Current Status of Overseas Compatriots. South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2009. http://www.mofat.go.kr/consul/overseascitizen/compatriotcondition/index6.jsp?TabMenu=TabMenu6. Retrieved 2009-05-21. 
2. ^ Note that the 2006 American Community Survey gave a much smaller figure of 1,520,703. See S0201. Selected Population Profile in the United States. United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_&-reg=ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201:042;ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201PR:042;ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201T:042;ACS_2006_EST_G00_S0201TPR:042&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format=. Retrieved 2007-09-22. 
3. ^ ^{a b} The 2002 Russian census gave a figure of 148,556. See (in Russian) (Microsoft Excel) Население по национальности и владению русским языком по субъектам Российской Федерации. Федеральная служба государственной статистики. http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_03.xls. Retrieved 2006-12-01 
4. ^ ^{a b} "20680-Ancestry (full classification list) by Sex - Australia" (Microsoft Excel download). 2006 Census. Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumb=POLTD&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction=-1&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&documentproductno=0&textversion=false&documenttype=Details&collection=Census&javascript=true&topic=Ancestry&action=404&productlabel=Ancestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order=1&period=2006&tabname=Details&areacode=0&navmapdisplayed=true&. Retrieved 2008-06-02.  Total responses: 25,451,383 for total count of persons: 19,855,288.
5. ^ Every Culture - Culture of NORTH KOREA
6. ^ Every Culture - South Koreans
7. ^ Every Culture - Culture of SOUTH KOREA
8. ^ state.gov
9. ^ "Korea.net: The official website of the Republic of Korea - Religion". http://www.korea.net/korea/kor_loca.asp?code=U05. 
10. ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2008 - Korea, Republic of". U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 22 January 2009. http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108411.htm. Retrieved 31 January 2009. 
11. ^ state.gov
12. ^ Brubaker & Kim 2010, p. 42-43
13. ^ Song 2005, p. 221
14. ^ Kim 1999, p. 227
15. ^ Brubaker & Kim 2010, p. 27
16. ^ Lee Kwang-kyu (2000). Overseas Koreans. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 89-88095-18-9. 
17. ^ ^{a b} Kim, Si-joong (2003). "The Economic Status and Role of Ethnic Koreans in China" (PDF). The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy. Institute for International Economics. pp. Ch. 6: 101–131. http://www.iie.com/publications/chapters_preview/365/6iie3586.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-24. 
18. ^ Ban, Byung-yool (2004-09-22). "Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective". Korea Times. http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/nation/200409/kt2004092218583111950.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-20. 
19. ^ NOZAKI, Yoshiki; INOKUCHI Hiromitsu, KIM Tae-Young. "Legal Categories, Demographic Change and Japan’s Korean Residents in the Long Twentieth Century". Japan Focus. http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/2220. 
20. ^ 平成１５年末現在における外国人登録者統計について (Japanese).
21. ^ [1]
22. ^ Zhang Tianlu (2004-03-26). 中国少数民族人口问题研究 (Research on the topic of Chinese minority ethnic group populations). National Population and Family Planning Commission of China. Archived from the original on 2006-11-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20061117001943/http://www.chinapop.gov.cn/rklt/rkyjhsyyj/t20040326_1504.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-16.  See section "民族人口生活质量问题研究".
23. ^ [2]
24. ^ ^{a b} S0201. Selected Population Profile in the United States. United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=NBSP&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:042;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:042;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:042;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:042&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format=. Retrieved 2008-10-26. 
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Bibliography

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