Margarine

Margarine in a tub

Margarine ( /ˈmɑrdʒərɨn/, /ˈmɑrɡərɨn/, /ˈmɑrdʒrɨn/, or /ˈmɑrdʒəriːn/), as a generic term, can indicate any of a wide range of butter substitutes. In many parts of the world, the market share of margarine and spreads has overtaken that of butter. Margarine is an ingredient in the preparation of many foods and, in recipes and colloquially, is sometimes called oleo, short for oleomargarine.

Margarine naturally appears white, or almost white, and by forbidding the addition of artificial coloring agents, legislators in some jurisdictions found that they could protect their dairy industries by discouraging the consumption of margarine. Bans on adding color became commonplace in the U.S., Australasia and Canada and, in some cases, those bans endured for almost 100 years. It did not become legal to sell colored margarine in Australia, for example, until the 1960s.

Etymology

The word "margarine" comes from the French margarine (“margarin”), from the Ancient Greek μαργαρίτης (“pearl”).

History

Margarine originated with the discovery by Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813 of margaric acid (itself named after the pearly deposits of the fatty acid from Greek μαργαρίτης or μάργαρον (margaritēs / márgaron), meaning pearl-oyster or pearl,^[1] or μαργαρίς (margarís), meaning palm-tree, hence the relevance to palmitic acid).^[2] Scientists at the time regarded margaric acid, like oleic acid and stearic acid, as one of the three fatty acids which, in combination, formed most animal fats. In 1853, the German structural chemist, Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz, analyzed margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid and of the previously unknown palmitic acid.^[3]

Emperor Louis Napoleon III of France offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory substitute for butter, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes.^[4] French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a substance he called oleomargarine, the name of which became shortened to the trade name "margarine". Mège-Mouriés patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France but had little commercial success. In 1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, now part of Unilever.^[5] In the same year the German pharmacist Benedict Klein from Cologne founded the first margarine factory "Benedict Klein Margarinewerke", producing the brands Overstolz and Botteram.^[6]

Canada

In Canada, margarine was banned from 1886 until 1948 though this ban was temporarily lifted from 1917 until 1923 due to dairy shortages.^[7] Nevertheless, bootleg margarine was produced in the neighboring British colony of Newfoundland from whale, seal and fish oil by the Newfoundland Butter Company (which, in fact, produced only margarine) and was smuggled to Canada where it was widely sold for half the price of butter. The Supreme Court of Canada lifted the margarine ban in 1948 in the Margarine Reference.

In 1950, as a result of a court ruling giving provinces the right to regulate the product, rules were implemented in much of Canada regarding margarine's color, requiring it to be bright yellow or orange in some provinces or colorless in others. By the 1980s, most provinces had lifted the restriction, however, in Ontario it was not legal to sell butter-colored margarine until 1995.^[7] Quebec, the last Canadian province to regulate margarine coloring, repealed its law requiring margarine to be colorless in July 2008.^[8]

United States

As early as 1877, the first United States (U.S.) states had passed laws to restrict the sale and labeling of margarine. By the mid-1880s, the U.S. federal government had introduced a tax of two cents per pound, and manufacturers needed an expensive license to make or sell the product. Individual states began to require the clear labeling of margarine. The color bans, drafted by the butter lobby, began in the dairy states of New York and New Jersey. In several states, legislatures enacted laws to require margarine manufacturers to add pink colorings to make the product look unpalatable,^[9] but the Supreme Court struck down New Hampshire's law and overruled these measures in Collins v. New Hampshire, 171 U.S. 30 (1898). Some localities required restaurants using margarine to post signs reading "Artificial Butter Used Here".

By the start of the 20th century, eight out of ten Americans could not buy yellow margarine, and those that could had to pay a hefty tax on it. Bootleg colored margarine became common, and manufacturers began to supply food-coloring capsules so that the consumer could knead the yellow color into margarine before serving it. Nevertheless, the regulations and taxes had a significant effect: the 1902 restrictions on margarine color, for example, cut annual U.S. consumption from 120 million to 48 million pounds (60,000 to 24,000 tons). However, by the end of the 1910s, it had become more popular than ever^{[citation needed]}.

With the coming of World War I, margarine consumption increased enormously, even countries away from the front like the U.S. In the countries closest to the fighting, dairy products became almost unobtainable and were strictly rationed. The United Kingdom, for example, depended on imported butter from Australia and New Zealand, and the risk of submarine attack meant that little arrived.

The long-running rent-seeking battle between the margarine and dairy lobbies continued: In the U.S., the Great Depression brought a renewed wave of pro-dairy legislation; the Second World War, a swing back to margarine. Post-war, the margarine lobby gained power and, little by little, the main margarine restrictions were lifted, the most recent states to do so being Minnesota in 1963 and Wisconsin in 1967.^[10] Lois Dowdle Cobb (1889–1987) of Atlanta, Georgia, wife of the agricultural publisher Cully Cobb, led the move in the United States to lift the restrictions on margarine.^[11] Some unenforced laws remain on the books.^[12][13]

The development of spreads

Margarine and butter both consist of a water-in-fat emulsion, with tiny droplets of water (minimum 16% of total emulsion content by weight) measuring 10-80 micrometers in diameter, dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase which is in a stable crystalline form.^[14]

The definition for margarine originally came from the legal definition for butter — both contained a minimum of 16% water and a minimum fat content of 80%. This was adopted by all major producers and became the industry standard.^[14]

The principal raw material in the original formulation of margarine was beef fat. Shortages in supply combined with advances in the hydrogenation of plant materials soon led to the addition of vegetable oils, and between 1900 and 1920 oleomargarine was produced from a combination of animal fats and hardened and unhardened vegetable oils.^[15] The depression of the 1930s, followed by the rationing of World War II, led to a reduction in supply of animal fat; and, by 1945, "pure" margarine almost completely disappeared from the market.^[15] In the U.S., problems with supply, coupled with changes in legislation, caused manufacturers to switch almost completely to vegetable fats (oleomargarine) by 1950 and the industry was ready for an era of product development.^[15]

During WWII rationing, only two types of margarine were available in the UK, a premium brand and a cheaper budget brand. With the end of rationing in 1955 the market was opened to the forces of supply and demand and brand marketing became prevalent.^[15] The competition between the major producers was given further impetus with the beginning of commercial television advertising in 1955; and, throughout the 1950s and 1960s, competing companies vied with each other to produce the margarine that tasted most like butter.^[15]

In the mid-1960s, the introduction of two lower-fat blends of butter oil and vegetable oils in Scandinavia, called Lätt & Lagom and Bregott, clouded the issue of what should be called "margarine" and began the debate that led to the introduction of the term "spread".^[14] In 1978, an 80% fat product called Krona, made by churning a blend of dairy cream and vegetable oils, was introduced in Europe; and, in 1982, a blend of cream and vegetable oils called Clover was introduced in the UK by the Milk Marketing Board.^[14] The vegetable oil and cream spread I Can't Believe It's Not Butter! was introduced in the United States in 1986 and in the United Kingdom and Canada in 1991.^[16][17]

Manufacture

The basic method of making margarine today consists, as it did in Mège-Mouriés day, of emulsifying a blend of purified vegetable oils with skim milk, chilling the mixture to solidify it and working it to improve the texture.^[1] Vegetable and animal fats are similar compounds with different melting points. Those fats that are liquid at room temperature are generally known as oils. The melting points are determined by the presence of alkenic double bonds on fatty (carboxylic) acids; the higher the number of double bonds, the lower the melting point.

Alternatively, solid fats can be manufactured from oils by converting animal or vegetable oils by passing hydrogen through the oil in the presence of a nickel catalyst, under controlled conditions. The addition of hydrogen to the unsaturated bonds (alkenic double C=C bonds) results in saturated C-C bonds, effectively increasing the melting point of the oil and thus "hardening" it. This is due to the increase in van der Waals' forces between the saturated molecules compared with the unsaturated molecules. However, as there are possible health benefits in limiting the amount of saturated fats in the human diet, the process is controlled so that only enough of the bonds are hydrogenated to give the required texture. Margarines manufactured in this way are said to contain hydrogenated fat.^[18] This method is used today for some margarines although the process has been developed and sometimes other metal catalysts are used such as palladium.^[1] If hydrogenation is incomplete (partial hardening), the relatively high temperatures used in the hydrogenation process tend to flip some of the carbon-carbon double bonds into the "trans" form. If these particular bonds aren't hydrogenated during the process, they will still be present in the final margarine in molecules of trans fats,^[18] the consumption of which has been shown to be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.^[19] For this reason, partially hardened fats are used less and less in the margarine industry. Some tropical oils, such as palm oil and coconut oil, are naturally semi solid and do not require hydrogenation.^[20][21]

Modern margarines can be made from any of a wide variety of animal or vegetable fats, mixed with skim milk, salt, and emulsifiers. Like butter, margarine is about 80% fat, 20% water and solids, flavored, colored, and fortified with vitamin A, and sometimes D, to match butter's nutritional contribution to the human diet. The oil is pressed from seeds, purified, hydrogenated, and then fortified and colored, either with a synthetic carotene or annatto. The water phase is usually reconstituted, or skim milk, that is cultured with lactic acid bacteria to produce a stronger flavor. Emulsifiers such as lecithin help disperse the water phase evenly throughout the oil, and salt and preservatives are also commonly added. This oil and water emulsion is then heated, blended, and cooled. The softer tub margarines are made with less hydrogenated, more liquid, oils than block margarines.^[22]

Margarines made from vegetable oils are popular in today's market, as they are advertised as lower in saturated fat than butter, and claim to be a healthier option. These claims continue to be challenged.^[23]

Three main types of margarine are common:

• Traditional margarines, which contain saturated fats, are mostly made from vegetable oils.
• Blended margarines, high in mono- or polyunsaturated fats, which are made from safflower, sunflower, soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, or olive oil.
• Hard, generally uncolored margarine for cooking or baking. (Shortening)

Blending with butter

Many popular table spreads sold today are blends of margarine and butter or other milk products. Blending, which is used to improve the taste of margarine, was long illegal in countries such as the United States and Australia. Under European Union directives, a margarine product cannot be called "butter", even if most of it consists of natural butter. In some European countries butter-based table spreads and margarine products are marketed as "butter mixtures".

Butter mixtures now make up a significant portion of the table spread market. The brand "I Can't Believe It's Not Butter" spawned a variety of similarly named spreads that can now be found on supermarket shelves all over the world, with names like "Utterly Butterly", "You'd Butter Believe it", "Beautifully Butterfully", and "Butterlicious". These butter mixtures avoid the restrictions on labelling, with marketing techniques that imply a strong similarity to real butter. Such marketable names present the product to consumers differently from the required product labels that call margarine "partially hydrogenated vegetable oil".

Market acceptance

Margarine, particularly polyunsaturated margarine, has become a major part of the Western diet and overtook butter in popularity in the mid-20th century.^[22] In the United States, for example, in 1930 the average person ate over 18 pounds (8.2 kg) of butter a year and just over 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of margarine. By the end of the 20th century, an average American ate around 5 lb (2.3 kg) of butter and nearly 8 lb (3.6 kg) of margarine.^[24]

Margarine has a particular market to those who observe the Jewish dietary laws of Kashrut. Kashrut forbids the mixing of meat and dairy products, and hence there are strictly Kosher non-dairy margarines available. These are often used by the Kosher consumer to adapt recipes that use meat and butter, or in baked goods that will be served with meat meals. The 2008 Passover margarine shortage in America caused much consternation within the Kosher-observant community.

Margarine that doesn't contain dairy products can also provide a vegan substitute for butter.

Nutrition

Discussions concerning the nutritional value of margarines and spreads revolve around two aspects — the total amount of fat, and the types of fat (saturated fat, trans fat). Usually, a comparison between margarine and butter is included in this context as well.

Amount of fat

Fat is an essential part of nutrition as it is needed in the production of cell membranes and several hormone-like compounds called eicosanoids. In addition, fat acts as carrier for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.^[25] The roles of butter and traditional margarine (80% fat) are similar with respect to their energy content, but low-fat margarines and spreads are also widely available.

Saturated fat

Main article: Saturated fats

The saturated fatty acids have been linked to elevated blood cholesterol levels, which in turn has been linked to cardiovascular diseases.^[26] Saturated fat increases both Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and High-density lipoprotein (HDL)cholesterol.

Vegetable fats can contain anything between 7% and 86% saturated fatty acids. Liquid oils (canola oil, sunflower oil) tend to be on the low end, while tropical oils (coconut oil, palm kernel oil) and fully hardened (hydrogenated) oils are at the high end of the scale.^[27] A margarine blend is a mixture of both types of components. Generally, firmer margarines contain more saturated fat.

Typical soft tub margarine contains 10% to 20% of saturated fat.^[28] Regular butterfat contains 52 to 65% saturated fats.^[29]

Unsaturated fat

Main article: Unsaturated fat

Consumption of unsaturated fatty acids has been found to decrease LDL cholesterol levels and increase HDL cholesterol levels in the blood, thus reducing the risk of contracting cardiovascular diseases.^[30][31][32]

There are two types of unsaturated oils: mono- and poly-unsaturated fats both of which are recognized as beneficial to health in contrast to saturated fats. Some widely grown vegetable oils, such as rapeseed (and its variant canola), sunflower, safflower, and olive oils contain high amounts of unsaturated fats.^[27] During the manufacture of margarine, some of the unsaturated fats may be converted into hydrogenated fats or trans fats in order to give them a higher melting point so that they are solid at room temperatures.

• Omega-3 fatty acids
  Main article: Omega-3 fatty acids
  Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been found especially good for health. This is one of the two Essential fatty acids, so called because humans cannot manufacture it and must get it from food. Most modern Western diets are severely deficient in it.^{[citation needed]} Omega-3 fatty acids are mostly obtained from oily fish caught in high-latitude waters. They are comparatively uncommon in vegetable sources, including margarine. However, one type of Omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) can be found in some vegetable oils. Flax oil contains 30-50% of ALA, and is becoming a popular dietary supplement to rival fish oils; both are often added to premium margarines. An ancient oil plant, camelina sativa, has recently gained popularity because of its high Omega-3 content (30-45%), and it has been added to some margarines. Hemp oil contains about 20% ALA. Small amounts of ALA are found in vegetable oils such as soybean oil (7%), rapeseed oil (7%) and wheat germ oil (5%).

• Omega-6 fatty acids
  Main article: Omega-6 fatty acids
  Omega-6 fatty acids are also important for health. They include the essential fatty acid linoleic acid (LA), which is abundant in vegetable oils grown in temperate climates. Some, such as hemp (60%) and the common margarine oils corn (60%), cottonseed (50%) and sunflower (50%), have large amounts, but most temperate oil seeds have over 10% LA. Margarine is very high in omega-6 fatty acids. Modern Western diets are frequently quite high in Omega-6 but very deficient in Omega-3. The omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is typically 10:1 to 30:1. Large amounts of omega-6 decreases the effect of omega-3. Therefore it is recommended that the ratio in the diet should be less than 4:1, although optimal ratio may be closer to 1:1.^[33][34]

Trans fat

Main article: Trans fat

Unlike other dietary fats, trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health. As with saturated fatty acids, there is a positive linear trend between trans fatty acid intake and LDL cholesterol concentration, and therefore increased risk of coronary heart disease,^[19][35] by raising levels of LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of HDL cholesterol.^[36]

Several large studies have indicated a link between consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases,^{[26][37][38][39]} prompting a number of government health agencies across the world to recommend that the intake of trans-fats be minimized.

In the US, partial hydrogenation is common as a result of preference for homegrown oils. However, since the mid-1990s, many countries around the world have started to move away from using partially hydrogenated oils.^[40] This led to the production of new margarine varieties that contain less or no trans fat.^[41]

Cholesterols

Main article: Cholesterol

Excessive cholesterol is a health risk because fatty deposits gradually clog up the arteries. This will cause blood flow to the brain, heart, kidneys and other parts of the body to become less efficient. Cholesterol, though needed metabolically, is not essential in the diet. The human body makes cholesterol in the liver, producing about 1g of cholesterol each day or 80% of the needed total body cholesterol. The remaining 20% comes directly from food intake.

Therefore overall intake of cholesterol as food has less effect on blood cholesterol levels than the type of fat eaten.^[42] However, some individuals are more responsive to dietary cholesterol than others. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that healthy people should not consume more than 300 mg of cholesterol each day.

Most margarines are vegetable-based and thus contains no cholesterol. 100 grams of butter contains 178 mg of cholesterol.^[28]

Plant sterol/stanol esters

Plant sterol esters or plant stanol esters have been added to some margarines and spreads because of their cholesterol lowering effect. Several studies have indicated that consumption of about 2 grams per day provides a reduction in LDL cholesterol of about 10%.^[43][44]

Plant stanol esters are tasteless and odorless, and have the same physical and chemical properties as most fats. However, they do not enter the blood stream but instead pass through the gut, thus delivering no calories. That is why they are a good choice for replacing fat in low fat spreads.

Margarine today

Australia

Margarine is common in Australian supermarkets. Sales of the product have decreased in recent years due to consumers "reducing their use of spreads in their daily diet".^[45] It was not legal to sell colored margarine in Australia until the 1960s.

The product's availability in New Zealand has historically paralleled that of Australia.

Canada

Canadian standard B.09.016 states that margarine shall be:

A plastic or fluid emulsion of fat, or water in fat, oil, or fat and oil that are not derived from milk and shall contain not less than 80% fat and not less than 3300 IU of vitamin A and 530 IU of vitamin D.^[46]

Calorie reduced margarine is specified in standard B.09.017 as:

Containing not less than 40% fat and having 50% of the calories normally present in margarine.^[46]

Margarine products are not allowed to contain the word "butter" anywhere on the packaging.^{[citation needed]} Canadian grocers therefore do not carry any margarine products that have the word "Butter" or its derivatives in the name.^{[citation needed]}

European Union

Under European Union directives,^[47] margarine is defined as:

A water-in-oil emulsion derived from vegetable/animal fats, with a fat content of at least 80% but less than 90%, that remain solid at a temperature of 20°C and are suitable as spread.

Margarines may not have a milk fat content of more than 3%. For blends and blended spreads, the milk fat may be between 10% and 80%^[48]

Spread that contains 60 to 62% of fat may be called "Three-quarter-fat margarine" or "reduced-fat margarine". Spread that contains 39 to 41% of fat may be called "half-fat margarine", "low-fat margarine" or "light margarine". Spreads with any other percentage of fat are called "fat spread" or "light spread".

Many member states currently require the mandatory addition of vitamins A and D to margarine and fat spreads for reasons of public health. Voluntary fortification of margarine with vitamins had been practiced by manufacturers since 1925, but in 1940 with the advent of the war, certain governments took action to safeguard the nutritional status of their nations by making the addition of vitamin A and D compulsory. This mandatory fortification was justified in the view that margarine was being used to replace butter in the diet.^[49]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom there are no brands of spread on sale which contain any partially hydrogenated oils. Although fortification with vitamins A and D is still mandatory for margarine, it is only a voluntary requirement for other spreads.^[50]

Fat spread

See also: Cooking oil

Major oils

• Colza oil
• Canola oil
• Sunflower oil
• Corn oil
• Olive oil
• Soybean oil

See also

• Category:Margarine brands
• Spread (food)

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Baker Christopher G.J, Ranken H.D, Kill R.C., ed (1997). Food industries manual. 24th Edition. Springer. pp. 285–289. ISBN 9780751404043. http://books.google.com/?id=iG3wx9Wh5N4C&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=margarine+-+nickel+catalyst&q=margarine%20-%20nickel%20catalyst. Retrieved 13 November 2009. 
2. ^ Entry μαργαρίς at LSJ
3. ^ C.G. Lehmann, Lehrbuch der physiologischen Chemie, Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig (1853) p71.
4. ^ Science Power 9: Atlantic Edition, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. ISBN 0-07-560905-3.
5. ^ Anon. "Stork Margarine:How it all started". Unilever :Our Brands. Unilever. http://www.unilever.co.uk/brands/foodbrands/Stork.aspx. Retrieved 2009-10-21. 
6. ^ Johannes Maubach: Auf den Spuren der alten Ehrenfelder Industrie, Köln 2005, S. 55
7. ^ ^{a b} "Canada's conflicted relationship with margarine". CBC News Online. 2005-03-18. http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/food/margarine.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28. 
8. ^ "Resolving Canada's conflicted relationship with margarine". CBC News Online. 2008-07-09. http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2008/07/09/f-margarine.html. Retrieved 2008-07-10. 
9. ^ Visser, Margaret (1986). Much Depends on Dinner. Toronto: Harper Perennial Canada. p. 107. ISBN 0006391044. 
10. ^ Dupre R: Margarine Regulation in North America Since 1886', Journal of Economic History, Vol 59, No 2, June 1999, Pages 353-371.
11. ^ "The Founders of the Cobb Institute of Archaeology". msstate.edu. http://www.cobb.msstate.edu/cobbfndr.html. Retrieved July 16, 2010. 
12. ^ Intrastate sales of colored oleomargarine
13. ^ "Yellow margarine: I Can't Believe It's Not Legal!". AP / USA Today. 2008-12-16. http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2008-12-16-butter-crime_N.htm?csp=34. 
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Rajah, Kanes (1 May 2005). "Spread thickly with innovation: with the basic concept of spreads unchanged for decades, producers have to be increasingly innovative in their product development and marketing. Kanes Rajah outlines some successful strategies.". Al Business website. The Gale Group, Inc.. http://www.allbusiness.com/manufacturing/food-manufacturing-grain-oilseed-milling/423256-1.html. Retrieved 10 November 2009. 
15. ^ ^{a b c d e} Clark, Paul (6 may 1983). "The marketing of margarine". Paper presented to a seminar on Marketing and Advertising in the 20th Century at Central London Polytechnic. Emeral Backfiles. p. 54. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet?contentType=Article&Filename=/published/emeraldfulltextarticle/pdf/0070200504.pdf. Retrieved 2009-11-10. 
16. ^ http://www.unilever.co.uk/ourbrands/foods/icantbelieveitsnotbutter.asp
17. ^ http://www.unilever.ca/ourbrands/foods/ICBINB.asp
18. ^ ^{a b} Claek, Jim. "The Hydrogenation of Alkenes:Margarine Manufacture". Chemguide:Helping you to understand Chemistry. http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/alkenes/hydrogenation.html. Retrieved 9 November 2009. 
19. ^ ^{a b} Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academies Press. p. 423. http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309085373/html/423.html. 
20. ^ "Palm Oil/Palm Kernel Oil Applications - Margarine" (PDF). The Malaysian Palm Oil Council. http://www.malaysiapalmoil.org/publications/pdf/book01.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-04. ^{[dead link]}
21. ^ Shurtleff, William; Akiko Aoyagi (2007). "History of sot oil margarine". Soyinfo Center. http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/margarine1.php. Retrieved 4 January 2010. 
22. ^ ^{a b} Anon. "Margarine". Butter through the ages. webexhibits.org. http://www.webexhibits.org/butter/margarine.html. Retrieved 10 November 2009. 
23. ^ O'Connor, Anahad (16 October 2007). "The Claim: Margarine Is Healthier Than Butter.". New York Times (New York Times Company). http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/16/science/16real.html. Retrieved 10 October 2009. 
24. ^ Anon. "Eating less butter and more fat". Butter through the ages. webexhibits.org. http://www.webexhibits.org/butter/consumption-butter-fat.html. Retrieved 10 November 2009. 
25. ^ Mayo Clinic (January 31, 2007). "Dietary fats: Know which types to choose". http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fat/NU00262. Retrieved 2008-05-18. 
26. ^ ^{a b} F. B. Hu et al.. "Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women". The New England Journal of Medicine 337 (21): pp.1491–1499. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372102#t=abstract. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199711203372102#t=abstract. Retrieved 2010-10-17. 
27. ^ ^{a b} NutriStrategy (2005). "Fats, Cooking Oils and Fatty Acids". http://www.nutristrategy.com/fatsoils.html. Retrieved 2008-05-18. ^{[dead link]}
28. ^ ^{a b} "Foods". National Institute for Health and Welfare (Finland). 2003 - 2010. http://www.fineli.fi/foodlist.php?foodname=M%&lang=en. Retrieved 2010-10-10. 
29. ^ http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/
30. ^ Müller et al. (January 2003). "The Serum LDL/HDL Cholesterol Ratio Is Influenced More Favorably by Exchanging Saturated with Unsaturated Fat Than by Reducing Saturated Fat in the Diet of Women". http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/133/1/78. Retrieved 2008-05-18. 
31. ^ Hu, Manson, Willett (2001). "Types of Dietary Fat and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: A Critical Review". http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/20/1/5. Retrieved 2008-05-18. 
32. ^ Jeppesen et al. (2001). "Low Triglycerides–High High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease". http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/161/3/361. Retrieved 2008-05-18. 
33. ^ Clear Springs Press (2006). "Omega-3 and Omega-6 Essential fatty Acids (EFA)". http://www.advance-health.com/efa.html. Retrieved 2008-07-18. 
34. ^ Chico College of Agriculture (January 18, 2007). "Grass Fed Beef - Health Benefits". http://www.csuchico.edu/agr/grassfedbeef/health-benefits/index.html. Retrieved 2008-07-18. 
35. ^ Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academies Press. p. 504. http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/504.html. 
36. ^ "Trans fat: Avoid this cholesterol double whammy". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER).. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/trans-fat/CL00032. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
37. ^ W.C. Willett, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Mason, G.A. Colditz, F.E. Speizer, B.A. Rosner, L.A. Sampson, C.H. Hennekes, Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women, Lancet 341, 581-585 (1993)
38. ^ K. Hayakawa, Y.Y. Linko, P. Linko, The role of trans fatty acids in human nutrition, Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 102, 419-425 (2000)
39. ^ The Nurses' Health Study (NHS)
40. ^ E. Flöter, G. van Duijn, Trans-free fats for use in foods, in: Modifying lipids for use in foods (editor F.D. Gunstone), Woodhead, Cambridge, UK, 2006, pp. 429-443.
41. ^ G. van Duijn, Technical aspects of trans reduction in modified fats, Oléagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides, 12, 422-426 (2005)
42. ^ Harvard School of Public Health. "The Nutrition Source - Fats and Cholesterol". http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-cholesterol/. 
43. ^ Katan et al. (2003). "Efficacy and Safety of Plant Stanols and Sterols in the Management of Blood Cholesterol Levels" (PDF). http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/pdf/7808/7808r1.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-08. ^{[dead link]}
44. ^ IFIC (July 2007). "Functional Foods Fact Sheet: Plant Stanols and Sterols". http://www.ific.org/publications/factsheets/sterolfs.cfm. Retrieved 2008-04-08. 
45. ^ http://www.bandt.com.au/news/ea/0c00eeea.asp
46. ^ ^{a b} Gunstone, Frank D.; Fred B. Padley (13 May 1997). Lipid technologies and applications. CRC Press. p. 311. ISBN 0824798384. http://books.google.com/?id=MccA-I5PgIsC&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=plastic+or+fluid+emulsion+of+fat,+or+water+in+fat,+oil,+or+fat+and+oil+that+are+not+derived+from+milk+and+shall+contain+not+less+than+80%25+fat&q=plastic%20or%20fluid%20emulsion%20of%20fat%2C%20or%20water%20in%20fat%2C%20oil%2C%20or%20fat%20and%20oil%20that%20are%20not%20derived%20from%20milk%20and%20shall%20contain%20not%20less%20than%2080%25%20fat. 
47. ^ "Spreadable fats (dairy and non-dairy): Definition, labelling and sale". http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/consumers/product_labelling_and_packaging/l21107_en.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-05. 
48. ^ Anon. "EU Margarine legislation". Website of the International Margarine Association of the Countries of Europe. IMACE. http://www.imace.org/legislation/eu-legis.php. Retrieved 11 November 2009. 
49. ^ Anon. "Code of Practice on Vitamin A&D fortification of fats and spreads". IMACE Code of practice. IMACE. http://www.imace.org/margarine/pdf/vitamin.pdf. Retrieved 2009-11-10. 
50. ^ Anon. "What's in a margarine spread?". Website of the Margarines and Spreads Association. MSA. http://www.margarine.org.uk/whatisspread-content.html. Retrieved 10 November 2009. 

External links

• One-hour Radio Broadcast on Margarine in Canada (Deconstructing Dinner)
• American Heart Association article [Dead Link]
• Hyfoma about margarine
• International Margarine Association