Drug-related crime

DEA Operation Mallorca, 2005

Typical collateral damage of drug-related theft

Illegal drugs are related to crime in multiple ways. Most directly, it is a crime to use, possess, manufacture, or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse (such as cocaine, heroin, morphine and amphetamines). Drugs are also related to crime as drug trafficking and drug production are often controlled by drug cartels, organized crime and gangs.

The statistics on this page summarize the various ways that drugs and crime are related in the United States. Links for other countries are provided below. Some drug related crime involves crime against the person such as robbery or sexual assaults.^[1]

U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics

2002 in U.S. about a quarter of convicted property and drug offenders in local jails had committed their crimes to get money for drugs, compared to 5% of violent and public order offenders. Among State prisoners in 2004 the pattern was similar, with property (30%) and drug offenders (26%) more likely to commit their crimes for drug money than violent (10%) and public-order offenders (7%). In Federal prisons property offenders (11%) were less than half as likely as drug offenders (25%) to report drug money as a motive in their offenses.

In 2004, 17% of U.S. State prisoners and 18% of Federal inmates said they committed their current offense to obtain money for drugs. These percentages represent a slight increase for Federal prisoners (16% in 1997) and a slight decrease for State prisoners (19% in 1997).

United States Alcohol-related crime

Of the adult US population, at least 75% are drinkers; and about 6% of the total group are alcoholics. In groups which are almost 100% drinkers, the alcoholism rate is about 8%. Many reports state that about 73% of felonies are alcohol-related. One survey shows that in about 67% of child-beating cases, 41% of forcible rape cases, 80% of wife-battering, 72% of stabbings, and 83% of homicides, either the attacker or the victim or both had been drinking.^[2]

Benzodiazepines and crime

Drug abuse and addiction to benzodiazepines is associated with drug related crime. In the U.S. several jurisdictions have reported that benzodiazepine misuse by criminal detainees has surpassed that of opiates.^[3] Patients reporting to two emergency rooms in Canada with violence-related injuries were most often found to be intoxicated with alcohol and were significantly more likely to test positive for benzodiazepines (most commonly temazepam) than other groups of individuals, whereas other drugs were found to be insignificant in relation to violent injuries.^[4]

Research carried out on drug related crime found that benzodiazepine misuse is associated with various crimes which are in part related to the feelings of invincibility and disinhibitory effects of benzodiazepines which can become particularly pronounced with abuse of benzodiazepines. Problematic crimes associated with benzodiazepines include shoplifting, property crime, drug dealing, violence and aggression and driving whilst intoxicated.^[5] In Scotland among the 71% of suspected criminals testing positive for controlled drugs at the time of their arrest benzodiazepines (over 85% are temazepam cases) are detected more frequently than opiates and are second only to cannabis which is the most frequently detected drug.^[6]

Research carried out by the Australian government found that benzodiazepine users are more likely to be violent, more likely to have been in contact with the police and to have been charged with criminal behavior than those using opiates. Illicit benzodiazepines mostly originate from medical practitioners but leak onto the illicit scene due to diversion and doctor shopping. Although only a very small number originate from thefts, forged prescriptions, armed robberies or ram raids it is most often benzodiazepines, rather than opiates which are targeted in part because benzodiazepines aren't usually locked in vaults and or don't have as strict laws governing prescription and storage of many benzodiazepines. Temazepam accounts for most benzodiazepine sought by forgery of prescriptions and through pharmacy burglary in Australia.^[7][8]

Benzodiazepines have been used as a tool of murder by serial killers, murderers, and as a murder weapon by those with the condition Munchausen syndrome by proxy.^[9][10][11] Benzodiazepines have also been used to facilitate rape or robbery crimes, and benzodiazepine dependence has been linked to shoplifting due to the fugue state induced by the chronic use of the drug.^[12][13] When benzodiazepines are used for criminal purposes against a victim they are often mixed with food or drink.^[14]

Flunitrazepam, temazepam, and midazolam are the most common benzodiazepines used to facilitate date rape.^[15] Alprazolam has been abused for the purpose of carrying out acts of incest and for the corruption of adolescent girls.^[16] However, alcohol remains the most common drug involved in cases of drug rape.^[17] Although benzodiazepines and ethanol are the most frequent drugs used in sexual assaults, GHB is another potential date rape drug which has received increased media focus.^[18]

Some benzodiazepines are more associated with crime than others especially when abused or taken in combination with alcohol. The potent benzodiazepine flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), which has strong amnesia producing effects can cause abusers to become ruthless and also cause feelings of being invincible. This has led to some acts of extreme violence to others, often leaving abusers with no recollection of what they have done in their drug-induced state. It has been proposed that criminal and violent acts brought on by benzodiazepine abuse may be related to lowered serotonin levels via enhanced GABAergic effects.^[19]

Flunitrazepam has been implicated as the cause of one serial killers violent rampage, triggering off extreme aggression with anterograde amnesia.^[20] A study on forensic psychiatric patients who had abused flunitrazepam at the time of their crimes found that the patients displayed extreme violence, lacked the ability to think clearly and experienced a loss of empathy for their victims while under the influence of flunitrazepam and it was found that the abuse of alcohol or other drugs in combination with flunitrazepam compounded the problem. Their behaviour under the influence of flunitrazepam was in contrast to their normal psychological state.^[21]

Criticisms

The concept of drug related crime has been criticized for being too blunt, especially in its failure to distinguish between three types of crime associated with drugs^[22]:

• Use-Related crime: These are crimes that result from or involve individuals who ingest drugs, and who commit crimes as an result of the effect the drug has on their thought processes and behavior.^[22]
• Economic-Related crime: These are crimes where an individual commits a crime in order to fund a drug habit. These include theft and prostitution.^[22]
• System-Related crime: These are crimes that result from the structure of the drug system. They include production, manufacture, transportation, and sale of drugs, as well as violence related to the production or sale of drugs, such as a turf war.^[22]

Drug related crime may be used as a justification for prohibition, but in the case of system-related crime, the acts are only crimes because of prohibition. In addition, some consider even user-related and economic-related aspects of crime as symptomatic of a broader problem,^{[clarification needed]} and the Obama administration considers drug use as health problem, rather than a criminal problem ^[23]

Correlation and causation of drug effects and crime

Although there is correlation between drugs use and crime it is not trivial to attribute the cause of crimes to the effects of drugs. Australian Institute of Criminology has stated "Research suggests that drug use and crime involvement have common origins. Factors such as poor social support systems, difficulty in school, membership of deviant peer groups, early contact with government services and a lack of access to economic support systems are common in the backgrounds of both drug users and criminals."^[24] Detailed studies by National Institute on Drug Abuse and others have shown that drugs are not a cause of crime ^[25][26]

See also

• Drug abuse
• Self medication

General:

• Prohibition (drugs)
• Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

Organized crime:

• Cigarette smuggling
• Drug Cartel
• Drug Lord
• Illegal drug trade
• Organized crime
• Rum-running

US specific:

• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
• Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970
• Controlled Substances Act
• Drug Enforcement Administration
• Food and Drug Administration
• Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO)
• U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

References

1. ^ Marc B, Baudry F, Vaquero P, Zerrouki L, Hassnaoui S, Douceron H (April 2000). "Sexual assault under benzodiazepine submission in a Paris suburb". Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 263 (4): 193–7. doi:10.1007/s004040050282. PMID 10834331. http://www.springerlink.com/content/8q9j1a728yl2cfe5/fulltext.pdf?page=1. 
2. ^ http://www.enotalone.com/article/5540.html
3. ^ Yacoubian GS. (January 2003). "Correlates of benzodiazepine use among a sample of arrestees surveyed through the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program". Substance use & misuse (Substance use & misuse.) 38 (1): 127–39. doi:10.1081/JA-120016569. PMID 12602810. 
4. ^ Macdonald S; Wells S, Giesbrecht N, Cherpitel CJ. (June 1, 1999). "Demographic and substance use factors related to violent and accidental injuries: results from an emergency room study". Drug and alcohol dependence (Drug and alcohol dependence.) 55 (1-2): 53–61. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00184-7. PMID 10402149. 
5. ^ Australian Government; National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (2007). "BENZODIAZEPINE AND PHARMACEUTICAL OPIOID MISUSE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO CRIME" (PDF). NDLERF. http://www.ndlerf.gov.au/pub/Mono%2021%20Summary.pdf. Retrieved 27 December 2008. 
6. ^ The Scottish Government Publications (25 July 2000). "Interviewing and Drug Testing of Arrestees in Scotland: A Pilot of the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Methodology (ADAM)". http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2000/07/fa87fd94-22bc-4f95-826f-cc8ab786b182. Retrieved 27 December 2008. 
7. ^ "Injecting Temazepam: The facts — Temazepam Injection and Diversion". Victorian Government Health Information. 29 March 2007. http://www.health.vic.gov.au/drugservices/pubs/temazepam/facts.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-25. 
8. ^ National Drug Strategy; National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (2007). "Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime - An examination of illicit prescription drug markets in Melbourne, Hobart and Darwin" (PDF). http://www.ndlerf.gov.au/pub/Monograph_21.pdf. Retrieved 27 December 2008. 
9. ^ Missliwetz J (Jul-August 1981). "[Serial homicide in the Vienna-Lainz hospital]". Archiv fur Kriminologie (Archiv für Kriminologie.) 194 (1-2): 1–7. PMID 7979864. 
10. ^ Valentine JL; Schexnayder S, Jones JG, Sturner WQ. (September 1997). "Clinical and toxicological findings in two young siblings and autopsy findings in one sibling with multiple hospital admissions resulting in death. Evidence suggesting Munchausen syndrome by proxy". The American journal of forensic medicine and pathology : official publication of the National Association of Medical Examiners (The American journal of forensic medicine and pathology : official publication of the National Association of Medical Examiners.) 18 (3): 276–81. PMID 9290875. 
11. ^ Saito T; Takeichi S, Nakajima Y, Yukawa N, Osawa M. (Nov-December 1997). "A case of homicidal poisoning involving several drugs". Journal of analytical toxicology (Journal of analytical toxicology.) 194 (1-2): 1–7. PMID 9399131. 
12. ^ Boussairi A; Dupeyron JP, Hernandez B, Delaitre D, Beugnet L, Espinoza P, Diamant-Berger O. (1996). "Urine benzodiazepines screening of involuntarily drugged and robbed or raped patients". Journal of toxicology. Clinical toxicology (Journal of toxicology. Clinical toxicology.) 34 (6): 721–4. doi:10.3109/15563659609013835. PMID 8941203. 
13. ^ Tang CP; Pang AH, Ungvari GS. (July 1996). "Shoplifting and robbery in a fugue state". Medicine, science, and the law (Medicine, science, and the law.) 36 (3): 265–8. PMID 8918097. 
14. ^ Ohshima T. (January 2006). "A case of drug-facilitated sexual assault by the use of flunitrazepam". Journal of clinical forensic medicine (Journal of clinical forensic medicine.) 13 (1): 44–5. doi:10.1016/j.jcfm.2005.05.006. PMID 16087387. 
15. ^ Negrusz A; Gaensslen RE. (August 2003). "Analytical developments in toxicological investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assault". Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry. 376 (8): 1192–7. doi:10.1007/s00216-003-1896-z. PMID 12682705. 
16. ^ Kintz P; Villain M, Chèze M, Pépin G. (October 29, 2005). "Identification of alprazolam in hair in two cases of drug-facilitated incidents". Forensic science international (Forensic science international.) 153 (2-3): 222–6. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.025. PMID 16139113. 
17. ^ Weir E. (July 10, 2001). "Drug-facilitated date rape". Journal de l'Association medicale canadienne. (CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association) 165 (1): 80. PMC 81265. PMID 11468961. http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/165/1/80. 
18. ^ Saint-Martin P; Furet Y, O'Byrne P, Bouyssy M, Paintaud G, Autret-Leca E. (Mar-April 2006). "[Chemical submission: a literature review]". Therapie (Thérapie.) 61 (2): 145–50. doi:10.2515/therapie:2006028. PMID 16886708. 
19. ^ Dåderman A; Lidberg L. (March 3, 1999). "[Rohypnol should be classified as a narcotic]". Lakartidningen (Läkartidningen.) 96 (9): 1005–7. PMID 10093441. 
20. ^ Dåderman AM; Strindlund H, Wiklund N, Fredriksen SO, Lidberg L. (October 14, 2003). "The importance of a urine sample in persons intoxicated with flunitrazepam--legal issues in a forensic psychiatric case study of a serial murderer". Forensic science international (Forensic science international.) 137 (1): 21–7. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00273-1. PMID 14550609. 
21. ^ Dåderman AM; Fredriksson B, Kristiansson M, Nilsson LH, Lidberg L. (2002). "Violent behavior, impulsive decision-making, and anterograde amnesia while intoxicated with flunitrazepam and alcohol or other drugs: a case study in forensic psychiatric patients". The journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law (The journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law.) 30 (2): 238–51. PMID 12108561. 
22. ^ ^{a b c d} Drug Related Crime, The National Center for Victims of Crime
23. ^ Obama's Drug Czar Calls for End to 'War on Drugs'
24. ^ Does drug use cause crime? : understanding the drugs-crime link, Australian Institute of Criminology, April 2004
25. ^ Drugs and Violence: Causes, Correlates, and Consequences, National Institute of Drug Abuse
26. ^ Independent Policy Report: Illicit Drugs and Crime, Drug Policy Alliance

External links

• Defining drug-related crime - EU
• Drug-related crime Australia
• Drug-related crime Canada
• Drug-related crime UK
• Drug-related crime U.S. Department of Justice Dead Link!
• Prevention of drug-related crime - EU
• Beckley Foundation Report 2005, Reducing drug-related crime: an overview of the global Evidence
• Driving under the influence of drugs
• Drug wars the movie
• The National Center for Victims of Crime