Guadalcanal Campaign

Guadalcanal campaign Part of the Pacific Theater of World War II November 1942—United States Marines rest in the field during the Guadalcanal campaign Date August 7, 1942 – February 9, 1943 Location Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands Result Strategic Allied victory Belligerents Allied forces including:  United States  Australia  New Zealand  United Kingdom British Solomon Islands [1]  Tonga[2] Fiji[3] Empire of Japan Commanders and leaders Robert L. Ghormley William Halsey, Jr. Richmond K. Turner Alexander A. Vandegrift Alexander Patch Isoroku Yamamoto Nishizo Tsukahara Jinichi Kusaka Hitoshi Imamura Harukichi Hyakutake Strength 60,000 men (ground forces)[4] 36,200 men (ground forces)[5] Casualties and losses 7,100 dead 4 captured 29 ships lost 615 aircraft lost[6] 31,000 dead 1,000 captured 38 ships lost 683–880 aircraft lost[7]

The Guadalcanal Campaign, also known as the Battle of Guadalcanal and codenamed Operation Watchtower by Allied forces, was a military campaign fought between August 7, 1942 and February 9, 1943 on and around the island of Guadalcanal in the South Pacific of World War II. The Allied campaign was launched after the Battle for the Kokoda Track and both had the same purpose: prevent the Japanese from adding new strategically important air fields to their vast networked base system in defense of the sea lines of communication (SLOC)—so as to protect Australia from being cut off from the Americas, from India, and from invasion by the enemy.

While organized (and manned) by different Theatre commands —both were Allied actions to check expansion of the Japanese, when the Japanese were still unaware they'd already won their last victory of expansion on 21 July—their landings at Gona and Buna on the northcoast Papua peninsula. The landings at Guadalcanal was the second major offensive launched by Allied forces against the Empire of Japan.^[8]

On August 7, 1942, Allied forces, predominantly American, landed on the islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida in the southern Solomon Islands with the objective of denying their use by the Japanese to threaten the supply and communication routes between the U.S., Australia, and New Zealand. The Allies also intended to use Guadalcanal and Tulagi as bases to support a campaign to eventually capture or neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. The Allies overwhelmed the outnumbered Japanese defenders, who had occupied the islands since May 1942, and captured Tulagi and Florida, as well as an airfield (later named Henderson Field) that was under construction on Guadalcanal. Powerful U.S. naval forces supported the landings.

Surprised by the Allied offensive, the Japanese made several attempts between August and November 1942 to retake Henderson Field. Three major land battles, seven large naval battles (five nighttime surface actions and two carrier battles), and continual, almost daily aerial battles culminated in the decisive Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in early November 1942, in which the last Japanese attempt to bombard Henderson Field from the sea and land with enough troops to retake it was defeated. In December 1942, the Japanese abandoned further efforts to retake Guadalcanal and evacuated their remaining forces by February 7, 1943 in the face of an offensive by the U.S. Army's XIV Corps, conceding the island to the Allies.

The Guadalcanal campaign was a significant strategic combined arms victory by Allied forces over the Japanese in the Pacific theatre. The Japanese had reached the high-water mark of their conquests in the Pacific, and Guadalcanal marked the transition by the Allies from defensive operations to the strategic offensive in that theatre and the beginning of offensive operations, including the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and Central Pacific campaigns, that resulted in Japan's eventual surrender and the end of World War II.

Background

Strategic considerations

Japanese control of the western Pacific area between May and August 1942. Guadalcanal is located in the lower right center of the map.

On December 7, 1941, Japanese forces attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack crippled much of the U.S. battleship fleet and precipitated an open and formal state of war between the two nations. The initial goals of Japanese leaders were to neutralize the U.S. Navy, seize possessions rich in natural resources, and establish strategic military bases to defend Japan's empire in the Pacific Ocean and Asia. To further those goals, Japanese forces captured the Philippines, Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Wake Island, Gilbert Islands, New Britain and Guam. Joining the U.S. in the war against Japan were the rest of the Allied powers, several of whom, including Great Britain, Australia and the Netherlands had also been attacked by Japan.^[9]

Two attempts by the Japanese to continue their strategic initiative and offensively extend their outer defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific to where they could threaten Australia and Hawaii or the U.S. West Coast were thwarted at the naval battles of Coral Sea and Midway respectively. Coral Sea was a tactical stalemate, but strategic Allied victory which became clear only much later. Midway was not only the Allies' first clear major victory against the Japanese, it significantly reduced the offensive capability of Japan's carrier forces, but did not change their offensive mindset for several crucial months in which they compounded mistakes by moving ahead with brash, even brazen decisions, such as the attempt to assault Port Moresby over the Kokoda Trail. Up to this point, the Allies had been on the defensive in the Pacific but these strategic victories provided them an opportunity to seize the initiative from Japan.^[10]

The Allies chose the Solomon Islands (a protectorate of Great Britain), specifically the southern Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi and Florida Island, as the first target.^[11] The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and had constructed a seaplane base nearby. Allied concern grew large when, in early July 1942, the IJN began constructing a large airfield at Lunga Point on nearby Guadalcanal—from such a base, Japanese long range bombers would threaten the SLOC from the West Coast of the Americas to the populous East Coast of Australia. By August 1942, the Japanese had about 900 naval troops on Tulagi and nearby islands and 2,800 personnel (2,200 being Korean forced laborers & trustees as well as Japanese construction specialists) on Guadalcanal. These bases would protect Japan's major base at Rabaul, threaten Allied supply and communication lines and establish a staging area for an offensive against Fiji, New Caledonia and Samoa (Operation FS). The Japanese planned to deploy 45 fighters and 60 bombers to Guadalcanal. In the overall strategy for 1942 these aircraft could provide air cover for Japanese naval forces advancing farther into the South Pacific where they could pick.^[12]

In Melbourne, General MacArthur had spent the early summer arguing with factions of the War Cabinet and parliament against a defense on Australian soil alone, but instead was adamant that the Allies must seize what initiative they could and conduct a forward defense from the Papua peninsula.

The Allied plan to invade the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Admiral Ernest King, Commander in Chief, United States Fleet. He proposed the offensive to deny the use of the islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the United States and Australia and to use them as starting points. With Roosevelt's tacit consent, King also advocated the invasion of Guadalcanal. Because the United States supported Great Britain's proposal that priority be given to defeating Germany before Japan, the Pacific theater had to compete for personnel and resources with the European theater. Therefore U.S. Army General George C. Marshall opposed King's proposed campaign and asked who would command the operation. King replied that the Navy and Marines would carry out the operation by themselves and instructed Admiral Chester Nimitz to proceed with the preliminary planning. King eventually won the argument with Marshall and the invasion went ahead with the backing of the Combined Joint Chiefs.^[13]

The CJCS ordered for 1942-43 Pacific objectives: that Guadalcanal would be carried out in conjunction with an Allied offensive in New Guinea under Douglas MacArthur, to capture the Admiralty Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago, including the major Japanese base at Rabaul. The directive held that the eventual goal was the American reconquest of the Philippines.^[14] The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff created the South Pacific theater, with Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley taking command on June 19, 1942, to direct the offensive in the Solomons. Admiral Chester Nimitz, based at Pearl Harbor, was designated as overall Allied commander in chief for Pacific forces.^[15]

The airfield at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal under construction by Japanese and conscripted Korean laborers in July 1942.

Task Force

In preparation for the offensive in the Pacific in May 1942, U.S. Marine Major General Alexander Vandegrift was ordered to move his 1st Marine Division from the United States to New Zealand. Other Allied land, naval and air force units were sent to establish or reinforce bases in Fiji, Samoa, New Hebrides and New Caledonia.^[16] Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, was selected as the headquarters and main base for the offensive, codenamed Operation Watchtower, with the commencement date set for August 7, 1942.

At first, the Allied offensive was planned just for Tulagi and the Santa Cruz Islands, omitting Guadalcanal. After Allied reconnaissance discovered the Japanese airfield construction efforts on Guadalcanal, its capture was added to the plan and the Santa Cruz operation was (eventually) dropped.^[17] The Japanese were aware, via signals intelligence, of the large-scale movement of Allied forces in the South Pacific area but concluded that the Allies were reinforcing Australia and perhaps Port Moresby in New Guinea.^[18]

The Watchtower force, numbering 75 warships and transports (of vessels from the U.S. and Australia), assembled near Fiji on July 26, 1942 and engaged in one rehearsal landing prior to leaving for Guadalcanal on July 31.^[19] The commander of the Allied expeditionary force was U.S. Vice Admiral Frank Fletcher (flag in aircraft carrier USS Saratoga). Commanding the amphibious forces was U.S. Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner. Vandegrift led the 16,000 Allied (primarily U.S. Marine) infantry earmarked for the landings.^[20]

The troops sent to Guadalcanal were fresh from military training and armed with old bolt action rifles and a meager 10 day supply of ammunition. Due to the necessity of getting them into battle quickly, the operation planners had reduced their supplies from a 90 day supply to only 60 days. The troops of the 1st Marine Division began referring to the coming battle as "Operation Shoestring".^[21]

Landings

Further information: Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo

Routes of Allied amphibious forces for landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi, August 7, 1942.

Bad weather allowed the Allied expeditionary force to arrive in the vicinity of Guadalcanal unseen by the Japanese on the morning of August 7 and take the defenders by surprise.^[22] The landing force split into two groups, with one group assaulting Guadalcanal, and the other Tulagi, Florida, and nearby islands.^[23] Allied warships bombarded the invasion beaches while U.S. carrier aircraft bombed Japanese positions on the target islands and destroyed 15 Japanese seaplanes at their base near Tulagi.^[24]

Tulagi and two nearby small islands, Gavutu and Tanambogo, were assaulted by 3,000 U.S. Marines.^[25] The 886 IJN personnel manning the naval and seaplane bases on the three islands fiercely resisted the Marine attacks.^[26] With some difficulty, the Marines secured all three islands; Tulagi on August 8, and Gavutu and Tanambogo by August 9.^[27] The Japanese defenders were killed almost to the last man, while the Marines suffered 122 killed.^[28]

In contrast to Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo, the landings on Guadalcanal encountered much less resistance. At 09:10 on August 7, Vandegrift and 11,000 U.S. Marines came ashore on Guadalcanal between Koli Point and Lunga Point. Advancing towards Lunga Point, they encountered no resistance except for "tangled" rain forest, and they halted for the night about 1,000 yards (910 m) from the Lunga Point airfield. The next day, again against little resistance, the Marines advanced all the way to the Lunga River and secured the airfield by 16:00 on August 8. The Japanese naval construction units and combat troops, under the command of Captain Kanae Monzen, panicked by the warship bombardment and aerial bombing, had abandoned the airfield area and fled about 3 miles (4.8 km) west to the Matanikau River and Point Cruz area, leaving behind food, supplies, intact construction equipment and vehicles, and 13 dead.^[29]

U.S. Marines come ashore on Guadalcanal on August 7, 1942.

During the landing operations on August 7 and August 8, Japanese naval aircraft based at Rabaul, under the command of Sadayoshi Yamada, attacked the Allied amphibious forces several times, setting afire the transport USS George F. Elliot (which sank two days later) and heavily damaging the destroyer USS Jarvis.^[30] In the air attacks over the two days, the Japanese lost 36 aircraft, while the U.S. lost 19, both in combat and to accident, including 14 carrier fighters.^[31]

After these clashes, Fletcher was concerned about the losses to his carrier fighter aircraft strength, anxious about the threat to his carriers from further Japanese air attacks, and worried about his ship's fuel levels. Fletcher withdrew from the Solomon Islands area with his carrier task forces the evening of August 8.^[32] As a result of the loss of carrier-based air cover, Turner decided to withdraw his ships from Guadalcanal, even though less than half of the supplies and heavy equipment needed by the troops ashore had been unloaded.^[33] Turner planned, however, to unload as many supplies as possible on Guadalcanal and Tulagi throughout the night of August 8 and then depart with his ships early on August 9.^[34]

Battle of Savo Island

Main article: Battle of Savo Island

That night, as the transports unloaded, two groups of screening Allied cruisers and destroyers, under the command of British Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley, were surprised and defeated by a Japanese force of seven cruisers and one destroyer from the 8th Fleet, based at Rabaul and Kavieng and commanded by Japanese Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa. In the Battle of Savo Island, one Australian and three American cruisers were sunk and one American cruiser and two destroyers were damaged. The Japanese suffered moderate damage to one cruiser.^[35] Mikawa, who was unaware Fletcher was preparing to withdraw with the U.S. carriers, immediately retired to Rabaul without attempting to attack the transports. Mikawa was concerned about daylight U.S. carrier air attacks if he remained in the area. Bereft of his carrier air cover Turner decided to withdraw his remaining naval forces by the evening of August 9, leaving the Marines ashore without much of the heavy equipment, provisions and troops still aboard the transports. Mikawa's decision not to attempt to destroy the Allied transport ships when he had the opportunity proved to be a crucial strategic mistake.^[36]

Initial operations

Initial U.S. Marine defenses around the airstrip at Lunga Point, Guadalcanal, August 12, 1942

Map showing the U.S. Marine attacks west of the Matanikau River on August 19

The 11,000 Marines on Guadalcanal initially concentrated on forming a loose defensive perimeter around Lunga Point and the airfield, moving the landed supplies within the perimeter, and finishing the airfield. In four days of intense effort, the supplies were moved from the landing beach into dispersed dumps within the perimeter. Work began on the airfield immediately, mainly using captured Japanese equipment. On August 12, the airfield was named Henderson Field after Lofton R. Henderson, a Marine aviator who was killed during the Battle of Midway. By August 18, the airfield was ready for operation.^[37] Five days worth of food had been landed from the transports, which, along with captured Japanese provisions, gave the Marines a total of 14 days worth of food.^[38] To conserve supplies, the troops were limited to two meals per day.^[39]

Allied troops encountered a severe strain of dysentery soon after the landings, with one in five Marines afflicted by mid-August. Tropical diseases would affect the fighting strengths of both sides throughout the campaign. Although some of the Korean construction workers surrendered to the Marines, most of the remaining Japanese and Korean personnel gathered just west of the Lunga perimeter on the west bank of the Matanikau River and subsisted mainly on coconuts. A Japanese naval outpost was also located at Taivu Point, about 35 kilometres (22 mi) east of the Lunga perimeter. On August 8, a Japanese destroyer from Rabaul delivered 113 naval reinforcement troops to the Matanikau position.^[40]

On the evening of August 12, a 25-man U.S. Marine patrol, led by Lieutenant Colonel Frank Goettge and primarily consisting of intelligence personnel, landed by boat west of the Lunga perimeter, between Point Cruz and the Matanikau River, on a reconnaissance mission with a secondary objective of contacting a group of Japanese troops that U.S. forces believed might be willing to surrender. Soon after the patrol landed, a nearby platoon of Japanese naval troops attacked and almost completely wiped out the Marine patrol.^[41]

In response, on August 19, Vandegrift sent three companies of the U.S. 5th Marine Regiment to attack the Japanese troop concentration west of the Matanikau. One company attacked across the sandbar at the mouth of the Matanikau river while another crossed the river 1,000 metres (1,100 yd) inland and attacked the Japanese forces located in Matanikau village. The third landed by boat further west and attacked Kokumbuna village. After briefly occupying the two villages, the three Marine companies returned to the Lunga perimeter, having killed about 65 Japanese soldiers while losing four. This action, sometimes referred to as the "First Battle of the Matanikau", was the first of several major actions around the Matanikau River during the campaign.^[42]

On August 20, the escort carrier USS Long Island delivered two squadrons of Marine aircraft to Henderson Field, one a squadron of 19 F4F Wildcats, and the other a squadron of 12 SBD Dauntlesses. The aircraft at Henderson became known as the "Cactus Air Force" (CAF) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal. The Marine fighters went into action the next day, on the first of the almost-daily Japanese bomber air raids. On August 22, five U.S. Army P-400 Airacobras and their pilots arrived at Henderson Field.^[43]

Battle of the Tenaru

Main article: Battle of the Tenaru

Dead Japanese soldiers on the sandbar at the mouth of Alligator Creek, Guadalcanal after the Battle of the Tenaru.

In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's (IJA) 17th Army, a corps-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake, the task of retaking Guadalcanal. The army was to be supported by Japanese naval units, including the Combined Fleet under the command of Isoroku Yamamoto, which was headquartered at Truk. The 17th Army, at that time heavily involved in the Japanese campaign in New Guinea, had only a few units available. Of these, the 35th Infantry Brigade under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi was at Palau, the 4th (Aoba) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines and the 28th (Ichiki) Infantry Regiment, under the command of Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki, was on board transport ships near Guam. The different units began to move towards Guadalcanal via Truk and Rabaul immediately, but Ichiki's regiment, being the closest, arrived in the area first. A "First Element" of Ichiki's unit, consisting of about 917 soldiers, landed from destroyers at Taivu Point, east of the Lunga perimeter, after midnight on August 19, then made a 9-mile (14 km) night march west toward the Marine perimeter.^[44][45]

Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal, Ichiki's unit conducted a nighttime frontal assault on Marine positions at Alligator Creek (often called the "Ilu River" on U.S. Marine maps) on the east side of the Lunga perimeter in the early morning hours of August 21. Ichiki's assault was defeated with heavy Japanese losses in what became known as the Battle of the Tenaru. After daybreak, the Marine units counterattacked Ichiki's surviving troops, killing many more of them. The dead included Ichiki, though it has been claimed that he committed seppuku after realizing the magnitude of his defeat, rather than dying in combat.^[46] In total, all but 128 of the original 917 members of the Ichiki Regiment's First Element were killed in the battle. The survivors returned to Taivu Point, notified 17th Army headquarters of their defeat and awaited further reinforcements and orders from Rabaul.^[47]

Battle of the Eastern Solomons

Main article: Battle of the Eastern Solomons

The carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) under aerial attack during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons.

As the Tenaru battle was ending, more Japanese reinforcements were already on their way. Three slow transports departed from Truk on August 16 carrying the remaining 1,400 soldiers from Ichiki's (28th) Infantry Regiment plus 500 naval marines from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force.^[48] The transports were guarded by 13 warships commanded by Japanese Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka, who planned to land the troops on Guadalcanal on August 24.^[49] To cover the landings of these troops and provide support for the operation to retake Henderson Field from Allied forces, Yamamoto directed Chuichi Nagumo to sortie with a carrier force from Truk on August 21 and head towards the southern Solomon Islands. Nagumo's force included three carriers and 30 other warships.^[50]

Simultaneously, three U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher approached Guadalcanal to counter the Japanese offensive efforts. On August 24 and 25, the two carrier forces fought the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, which resulted in both fleets retreating from the area after taking some damage, with the Japanese losing one light aircraft carrier. Tanaka's convoy, after suffering heavy damage during the battle from an air attack by CAF aircraft from Henderson Field, including the sinking of one of the transports, was forced to divert to the Shortland Islands in the northern Solomons in order to transfer the surviving troops to destroyers for later delivery to Guadalcanal.^[51]

Air battles over Henderson Field and strengthening of the Lunga defenses

Further information: Cactus Air Force

U.S. Marine F4F Wildcat fighters ascend from Henderson Field to attack incoming Japanese aircraft in late August or early September 1942.

Throughout August, small numbers of U.S. aircraft and their crews continued to arrive at Guadalcanal. By the end of August, 64 aircraft of various types were stationed at Henderson Field.^[52] On September 3, the commander of 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, U.S. Marine Brigadier General Roy S. Geiger, arrived with his staff and took command of all air operations at Henderson Field.^[53] Air battles between the Allied aircraft at Henderson and Japanese bombers and fighters from Rabaul continued almost daily. Between August 26 and September 5, the U.S. lost about 15 aircraft while the Japanese lost approximately 19 aircraft. More than half of the downed U.S. aircrews were rescued while most of the Japanese aircrews were never recovered. The eight-hour round trip flight from Rabaul to Guadalcanal, about 1,120 miles (1,800 km) total, seriously hampered Japanese efforts to establish air superiority over Henderson Field. Australian coastwatchers on Bougainville and New Georgia islands were often able to provide Allied forces on Guadalcanal with advance notice of inbound Japanese air strikes, allowing the U.S. fighters time to take off and position themselves to attack the Japanese bombers and fighters as they approached the island. Thus, the Japanese air forces were slowly losing a war of attrition in the skies above Guadalcanal.^[54]

During this time, Vandegrift continued to direct efforts to strengthen and improve the defenses of the Lunga perimeter. Between August 21 and September 3, he relocated three Marine battalions, including the 1st Raider Battalion, under Merritt A. Edson (Edson's Raiders), and the 1st Parachute Battalion from Tulagi and Gavutu to Guadalcanal. These units added about 1,500 troops to Vandegrift's original 11,000 men defending Henderson Field.^[55] The 1st Parachute Battalion, which had suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo in August, was placed under Edson's command.^[56]

The other relocated battalion, the 1st Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment (1/5), was landed by boat west of the Matanikau near Kokumbuna village on August 27 with the mission of attacking Japanese units in the area, much as in the first Matanikau action of August 19. In this case, however, the Marines were impeded by difficult terrain, hot sun, and well-emplaced Japanese defenses. The next morning, the Marines found that the Japanese defenders had departed during the night, so the Marines returned to the Lunga perimeter by boat.^[57] Losses in this action were 20 Japanese and 3 Marines killed.^[58]

Small Allied naval convoys arrived at Guadalcanal on August 23, August 29, September 1, and September 8 to provide the Marines at Lunga with more food, ammunition, aircraft fuel, and aircraft technicians. The September 1 convoy also brought 392 construction engineers to maintain and improve Henderson Field.^[59]

Tokyo Express

Main article: Tokyo Express

Japanese troops load onto a destroyer for a "Tokyo Express" run to Guadalcanal

By August 23, Kawaguchi's 35th Infantry Brigade reached Truk and was loaded onto slow transport ships for the rest of the trip to Guadalcanal. The damage done to Tanaka's convoy during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons caused the Japanese to reconsider trying to deliver more troops to Guadalcanal by slow transport. Instead, the ships carrying Kawaguchi's soldiers were sent to Rabaul. From there, the Japanese planned to deliver Kawaguchi's men to Guadalcanal by destroyers staging through a Japanese naval base in the Shortland Islands. The Japanese destroyers were usually able to make round trips down "The Slot" (New Georgia Sound) to Guadalcanal and back in a single night throughout the campaign, minimizing their exposure to Allied air attack; they became known as the "Tokyo Express" to Allied forces and were labeled "Rat Transportation" by the Japanese.^[60] Delivering the troops in this manner, however, prevented most of the heavy equipment and supplies, such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition, from being transported to Guadalcanal with them. In addition, this activity tied up destroyers the IJN desperately needed for commerce defense. Either inability or unwillingness prevented Allied naval commanders from challenging Japanese naval forces at night, so the Japanese controlled the seas around the Solomon Islands during nighttime. However, any Japanese ship remaining within range of the aircraft at Henderson Field during the daylight hours, about 200 miles (320 km), was in great danger from air attack. This tactical situation existed for the next several months of the campaign.^[61]

Between August 29 and September 4, various Japanese light cruisers, destroyers, and patrol boats were able to land almost 5,000 troops at Taivu Point, including most of the 35th Infantry Brigade, much of the Aoba (4th) Regiment, and the rest of Ichiki's regiment. General Kawaguchi, who landed at Taivu Point on the August 31 Express run, was placed in command of all Japanese forces on Guadalcanal.^[62] A barge convoy took another 1,000 soldiers of Kawaguchi's brigade, under the command of Colonel Akinosuke Oka, to Kamimbo, west of the Lunga perimeter.^[63]

Battle of Edson's Ridge

Main article: Battle of Edson's Ridge

U.S. Marine Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson (here photographed as a major general) who led Marine forces in the Battle of Edson's Ridge

On September 7, Kawaguchi issued his attack plan to "rout and annihilate the enemy in the vicinity of the Guadalcanal Island airfield." Kawaguchi's attack plan called for his forces, split into three divisions, to approach the Lunga perimeter inland, culminating with a surprise night attack. Oka's forces would attack the perimeter from the west while Ichiki's Second Echelon, now renamed the Kuma Battalion, would attack from the east. The main attack would be by Kawaguchi's "Center Body", numbering 3,000 men in three battalions, from the jungle south of the Lunga perimeter.^[64] By September 7, most of Kawaguchi's troops had departed Taivu to begin marching towards Lunga Point along the coastline. About 250 Japanese troops remained behind to guard the brigade's supply base at Taivu.^[65]

Meanwhile, native scouts under the direction of Martin Clemens, a coastwatcher, officer in the Solomon Islands Protectorate Defense Force, and the British district officer for Guadalcanal, brought reports to the U.S. Marines of Japanese troops at Taivu, near the village of Tasimboko. Edson planned a raid on the Japanese troop concentration at Taivu.^[66] On September 8, after being dropped-off near Taivu by boat, Edson's men captured Tasimboko as the Japanese defenders retreated into the jungle.^[67] In Tasimboko, Edson's troops discovered Kawaguchi's main supply depot, including large stockpiles of food, ammunition, medical supplies, and a powerful shortwave radio. After destroying everything in sight, except for some documents and equipment carried back with them, the Marines returned to the Lunga perimeter. The mounds of supplies, along with intelligence gathered from the captured documents, informed the Marines that at least 3,000 Japanese troops were on the island and apparently planning an attack.^[68]

Edson, along with Colonel Gerald C. Thomas, Vandegrift's operations officer, correctly believed that the Japanese attack would come at a narrow, grassy, 1,000 yards (910 m)-long, coral ridge that ran parallel to the Lunga River and was located just south of Henderson Field. The ridge, called Lunga Ridge, offered a natural avenue of approach to the airfield, commanded the surrounding area and, at that time, was almost undefended. On September 11, the 840 men of Edson's battalion were deployed onto and around the ridge.^[69]

Map of the Lunga perimeter on Guadalcanal showing the approach routes of the Japanese forces and the locations of the Japanese attacks during the battle. Oka's attacks were in the west (left), the Kuma Battalion attacked from the east (right) and the Center Body attacked "Edson's Ridge" (Lunga Ridge) in the lower center of the map.

On the night of September 12, Kawaguchi's 1st Battalion attacked the Raiders between the Lunga River and ridge, forcing one Marine company to fall back to the ridge before the Japanese halted their attack for the night. The next night, Kawaguchi faced Edson's 830 Raiders with 3,000 troops of his brigade, plus an assortment of light artillery. The Japanese attack began just after nightfall, with Kawaguchi's 1st battalion assaulting Edson's right flank, just to the west of the ridge. After breaking through the Marine lines, the battalion's assault was eventually stopped by Marine units guarding the northern part of the ridge.^[70]

Two companies from Kawaguchi's 2nd Battalion charged up the southern edge of the ridge and pushed Edson's troops back to Hill 123 on the center part of the ridge. Throughout the night, Marines at this position, supported by artillery, defeated wave after wave of frontal Japanese attacks, some of which resulted in hand-to-hand fighting. Japanese units that infiltrated past the ridge to the edge of the airfield were also repulsed. Attacks by the Kuma battalion and Oka's unit at other locations on the Lunga perimeter were also defeated. On September 14, Kawaguchi led the survivors of his shattered brigade on a five day march west to the Matanikau Valley to join with Oka's unit.^[71] In total, Kawaguchi's forces lost about 850 killed and the Marines 104.^[72]

On September 15, Hyakutake at Rabaul learned of Kawaguchi's defeat and forwarded the news to Imperial General Headquarters in Japan. In an emergency session, the top Japanese IJA and IJN command staffs concluded that, "Guadalcanal might develop into the decisive battle of the war." The results of the battle now began to have a telling strategic impact on Japanese operations in other areas of the Pacific. Hyakutake realized that in order to send sufficient troops and materiel to defeat the Allied forces on Guadalcanal, he could not at the same time support the major ongoing Japanese offensive on the Kokoda Track in New Guinea. Hyakutake, with the concurrence of General Headquarters, ordered his troops on New Guinea, who were within 30 miles (48 km) of their objective of Port Moresby, to withdraw until the "Guadalcanal matter" was resolved. Hyakutake prepared to send more troops to Guadalcanal for another attempt to recapture Henderson Field.^[73]

Reinforcement

The U.S. carrier Wasp burns after being hit by Japanese submarine torpedoes on September 15.

As the Japanese regrouped west of the Matanikau, the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses. On September 14, Vandegrift moved another battalion, the 3rd Battalion, 2nd Marine Regiment (3/2), from Tulagi to Guadalcanal. On September 18, an Allied naval convoy delivered 4,157 men from the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade (the 7th Marine Regiment plus a battalion from the 11th Marine Regiment and some additional support units), 137 vehicles, tents, aviation fuel, ammunition, rations, and engineering equipment to Guadalcanal. These crucial reinforcements allowed Vandegrift, beginning on September 19, to establish an unbroken line of defense around the Lunga perimeter. While covering this convoy, the aircraft carrier USS Wasp was sunk by the Japanese submarine I-19 southeast of Guadalcanal, temporarily leaving only one Allied aircraft carrier (USS Hornet) in operation in the South Pacific area.^[74] Vandegrift also made some changes in the senior leadership of his combat units, transferring off the island several officers who did not meet his performance standards, and promoting junior officers who had proven themselves to take their places. One of these was the recently promoted Colonel Merritt Edson, who was placed in command of the 5th Marine Regiment.^[75]

A lull occurred in the air war over Guadalcanal, with no Japanese air raids occurring between September 14 and September 27 due to bad weather, during which both sides reinforced their respective air units. The Japanese delivered 85 fighters and bombers to their air units at Rabaul while the U.S. brought 23 fighters and attack aircraft to Henderson Field. On September 20, the Japanese counted 117 total aircraft at Rabaul while the Allies tallied 71 aircraft at Henderson Field.^[76] The air war resumed with a Japanese air raid on Guadalcanal on September 27, which was contested by U.S. Navy and Marine fighters from Henderson Field.^[77]

The Japanese immediately began to prepare for their next attempt to recapture Henderson Field. The 3rd Battalion, 4th (Aoba) Infantry Regiment had landed at Kamimbo Bay on the western end of Guadalcanal on September 11, too late to join Kawaguchi's attack. By now, though, the battalion had joined Oka's forces near the Matanikau. Tokyo Express runs by destroyers on September 14, 20, 21, and 24 brought food and ammunition, as well as 280 men from the 1st Battalion, Aoba Regiment, to Kamimbo on Guadalcanal. Meanwhile, the Japanese 2nd and 38th Infantry Divisions were transported from the Dutch East Indies to Rabaul beginning on September 13. The Japanese planned to transport a total of 17,500 troops from these two divisions to Guadalcanal to take part in the next major attack on the Lunga Perimeter, set for October 20, 1942.^[78]

Actions along the Matanikau

Main article: Actions along the Matanikau

A U.S. Marine patrol crosses the Matanikau River in September 1942.

Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River. Vandegrift, therefore, decided to conduct another series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley. The purpose of these operations was to mop up the scattered groups of Japanese troops east of the Matanikau and to keep the main body of Japanese soldiers off-balance to prevent them from consolidating their positions so close to the main Marine defenses at Lunga Point.^[79]

The first U.S. Marine operation and attempt to attack Japanese forces west of the Matanikau, conducted between September 23 and 27 by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions, was repulsed by Kawaguchi's troops under Akinosuke Oka's local command. During the action, three Marine companies were surrounded by Japanese forces near Point Cruz west of the Matanikau, took heavy losses, and barely escaped with assistance from the destroyer USS Monssen (DD-436) and landing craft manned by U.S. Coast Guard personnel.^[80]

In the second action between October 6 and 9, a larger force of Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River, attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu, and inflicted heavy losses on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment. The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau and hindered Japanese preparations for their planned major offensive on the U.S. Lunga defenses.^[81]

Between October 9 and 11 the U.S. 1st Battalion 2nd Marines raided two small Japanese outposts about 30 miles (48 km) east of the Lunga perimeter at Gurabusu and Koilotumaria near Aola Bay. The raids killed 35 Japanese at a cost of 17 Marines and three U.S. Navy personnel killed.^[82]

Battle of Cape Esperance

Main article: Battle of Cape Esperance

Throughout the last week of September and the first week of October, Tokyo Express runs delivered troops from the Japanese 2nd Infantry Division to Guadalcanal. The Japanese Navy promised to support the Army's planned offensive by not only delivering the necessary troops, equipment, and supplies to the island, but by stepping-up air attacks on Henderson Field and sending warships to bombard the airfield.^[83]

U.S. cruiser Helena, part of Task Force 64 under Norman Scott.

In the meantime, Millard F. Harmon, commander of United States Army forces in the South Pacific, convinced Ghormley that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next, expected Japanese offensive. Thus, on October 8, the 2,837 men of the 164th Infantry Regiment from the U.S. Army's Americal Division boarded ships at New Caledonia for the trip to Guadalcanal with a projected arrival date of October 13. To protect the transports carrying the 164th to Guadalcanal, Ghormley ordered Task Force 64, consisting of four cruisers and five destroyers under U.S. Rear Admiral Norman Scott, to intercept and combat any Japanese ships that approached Guadalcanal and threatened the arrival of the transport convoy.^[84]

Mikawa's 8th Fleet staff scheduled a large and important Express run for the night of October 11. Two seaplane tenders and six destroyers were to deliver 728 soldiers plus artillery and ammunition to Guadalcanal. At the same time but in a separate operation three heavy cruisers and two destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō were to bombard Henderson Field with special explosive shells with the object of destroying the CAF and the airfield's facilities. Because U.S. Navy warships had yet to attempt to interdict any Tokyo Express missions to Guadalcanal, the Japanese were not expecting any opposition from Allied naval surface forces that night.^[85]

Just before midnight, Scott's warships detected Gotō's force on radar near the entrance to the strait between Savo Island and Guadalcanal. Scott's force was in a position to cross the T of Gotō's unsuspecting formation. Opening fire, Scott's warships sank one of Gotō's cruisers and one of his destroyers, heavily damaged another cruiser, mortally wounded Gotō, and forced the rest of Gotō's warships to abandon the bombardment mission and retreat. During the exchange of gunfire, one of Scott's destroyers was sunk and one cruiser and another destroyer were heavily damaged. In the meantime, the Japanese supply convoy successfully completed unloading at Guadalcanal and began its return journey without being discovered by Scott's force.^[86] Later on the morning of October 12, four Japanese destroyers from the supply convoy turned back to assist Gotō's retreating, damaged warships. Air attacks by CAF aircraft from Henderson Field sank two of these destroyers later that day. The convoy of U.S. Army troops reached Guadalcanal as scheduled the next day and successfully delivered its cargo and passengers to the island.^[87]

Battleship bombardment of Henderson Field

In spite of the U.S. victory off Cape Esperance, the Japanese continued with plans and preparations for their large offensive scheduled for later in October. The Japanese decided to risk a one-time departure from their usual practice of only using fast warships to deliver their men and materiel to the island. On October 13, a convoy comprising six cargo ships with eight screening destroyers departed the Shortland Islands for Guadalcanal. The convoy carried 4,500 troops from the 16th and 230th Infantry Regiments, some naval marines, two batteries of heavy artillery, and one company of tanks.^[88]

Japanese battleship Haruna

To protect the approaching convoy from attack by CAF aircraft, Yamamoto sent two battleships from Truk to bombard Henderson Field. At 01:33 on October 14, Kongō and Haruna, escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers, reached Guadalcanal and opened fire on Henderson Field from a distance of 16,000 metres (17,500 yd). Over the next one hour and 23 minutes, the two battleships fired 973 14-inch (356 mm) shells into the Lunga perimeter, most of them falling in and around the 2,200 metres (2,400 yd) square area of the airfield. Many of the shells were fragmentation shells, specifically designed to destroy land targets. The bombardment heavily damaged both runways, burned almost all of the available aviation fuel, destroyed 48 of the CAF's 90 aircraft, and killed 41 men, including six CAF pilots. The battleship force immediately returned to Truk.^[89]

In spite of the heavy damage, Henderson personnel were able to restore one of the runways to operational condition within a few hours. Seventeen SBDs and 20 Wildcats at Espiritu Santo were quickly flown to Henderson and U.S. Army and Marine transport aircraft began to shuttle aviation gasoline from Espiritu Santo to Guadalcanal. Now aware of the approach of the large Japanese reinforcement convoy, the U.S. desperately sought some way to interdict the convoy before it could reach Guadalcanal. Using fuel drained from destroyed aircraft and from a cache in the nearby jungle, the CAF attacked the convoy twice on the 14th, but caused no damage.^[90]

Japanese cargo ship destroyed at Tassafaronga by CAF aircraft on October 15.

The Japanese convoy reached Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal at midnight on October 14 and began unloading. Throughout the day of October 15, a string of CAF aircraft from Henderson bombed and strafed the unloading convoy, destroying three of the cargo ships. The remainder of the convoy departed that night, having unloaded all of the troops and about two-thirds of the supplies and equipment. Several Japanese heavy cruisers also bombarded Henderson on the nights of October 14 and 15, destroying a few additional CAF aircraft, but failing to cause significant further damage to the airfield.^[91]

Battle for Henderson Field

Main article: Battle for Henderson Field

Between October 1 and October 17, the Japanese delivered 15,000 troops to Guadalcanal, giving Hyakutake 20,000 total troops to employ for his planned offensive. Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau, the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult. Therefore, Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field. His 2nd Division (augmented by troops from the 38th Division), under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7,000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defences from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River.^[92] The date of the attack was set for October 22, then changed to October 23. To distract the Americans from the planned attack from the south, Hyakutake's heavy artillery plus five battalions of infantry (about 2,900 men) under Major General Tadashi Sumiyoshi were to attack the American defenses from the west along the coastal corridor. The Japanese estimated that there were 10,000 American troops on the island, when in fact there were about 23,000.^[93]

Map of the battle, October 23 – October 26. Sumiyoshi's forces attack in the west at the Matanikau (left) while Maruyama's 2nd division attacks the Lunga perimeter from the south (right)

On October 12, a company of Japanese engineers began to break a trail, called the "Maruyama Road", from the Matanikau towards the southern portion of the U.S. Lunga perimeter. The 15 miles (24 km) long trail traversed some of the most difficult terrain on Guadalcanal, including numerous rivers and streams, deep, muddy ravines, steep ridges, and dense jungle. Between October 16 and October 18, the 2nd Division began their march along the Maruyama Road.^[94]

By October 23, Maruyama's forces still struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines. That evening, after learning that his forces had yet to reach their attack positions, Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19:00 on October 24. The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama's forces.^[95]

Sumiyoshi was informed by Hyakutake's staff of the postponement of the offensive to October 24, but was unable to contact his troops to inform them of the delay. Thus, at dusk on October 23, two battalions of the 4th Infantry Regiment and the nine tanks of the 1st Independent Tank Company launched attacks on the U.S. Marine defenses at the mouth of the Matanikau. U.S. Marine artillery, cannon, and small arms fire repulsed the attacks, destroying all the tanks and killing many of the Japanese soldiers while suffering only light casualties.^[96]

Finally, late on October 24 Maruyama's forces reached the U.S. Lunga perimeter. Over two consecutive nights Maruyama's forces conducted numerous, unsuccessful frontal assaults on positions defended by troops of the 1st Battalion, 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller and the U.S. Army's 3rd Battalion, 164th Infantry Regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall. U.S. Marine and Army units armed with rifles, machine guns, mortars, artillery, including direct canister fire from 37 mm anti-tank guns "wrought terrible carnage" on the Japanese.^[97] A few small groups of Japanese broke through the American defenses, but were all hunted down and killed over the next several days. More than 1,500 of Maruyama's troops were killed in the attacks while the Americans lost about 60 killed. Over the same two days American aircraft from Henderson Field defended against attacks by Japanese aircraft and ships, destroying 14 aircraft and sinking a light cruiser.^[98]

Dead soldiers from the Japanese 2nd Division cover the battlefield after the failed assaults on October 25–26

Further Japanese attacks near the Matanikau on October 26 were also repulsed with heavy losses for the Japanese. As a result, by 08:00 on October 26, Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat. About half of Maruyama's survivors were ordered to retreat back to the upper Matanikau Valley while the 230th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Toshinari Shōji was told to head for Koli Point, east of the Lunga perimeter. Leading elements of the 2nd Division reached the 17th Army headquarters area at Kokumbona, west of the Matanikau on November 4. The same day, Shoji's unit reached Koli Point and made camp. Decimated by battle deaths, combat injuries, malnutrition, and tropical diseases, the 2nd Division was incapable of further offensive action and fought as a defensive force along the coast for the rest of the campaign. In total the Japanese lost 2,200 – 3,000 troops in the battle while the Americans lost around 80 killed.^[99]

Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands

Main article: Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands

At the same time that Hyakutake's troops were attacking the Lunga perimeter, Japanese aircraft carriers and other large warships under the overall direction of Isoroku Yamamoto moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands. From this location, the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied (primarily U.S.) naval forces, especially carrier forces, that responded to Hyakutake's ground offensive. Allied naval carrier forces in the area, now under the overall command of William Halsey, Jr., also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle. Nimitz had replaced Ghormley with Halsey on October 18 after concluding that Ghormley had become too pessimistic and myopic to effectively continue leading Allied forces in the South Pacific area.^[100]

USS Hornet is torpedoed and fatally damaged by a Japanese carrier aircraft on October 26.

The two opposing carrier forces confronted each other on the morning of October 26, in what became known as the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. After an exchange of carrier air attacks, Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with the loss of one carrier sunk (Hornet) and another (Enterprise) heavily damaged. The participating Japanese carrier forces, however, also retired because of high aircraft and aircrew losses and significant damage to two carriers. Although an apparent tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged, the loss by the Japanese of many irreplaceable, veteran aircrews provided a long-term strategic advantage for the Allies, whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low. The Japanese carriers played no further significant role in the campaign.^[101]

November land actions

Further information: Matanikau Offensive, Koli Point action, and Carlson's patrol

In order to exploit the victory in the Battle for Henderson Field, Vandegrift sent six Marine battalions, later joined by one U.S. Army battalion, on an offensive west of the Matanikau. The operation was commanded by Merritt Edson and its goal was to capture Kokumbona, headquarters of the 17th Army, west of Point Cruz. Defending the Point Cruz area were Japanese army troops from the 4th Infantry Regiment commanded by Nomasu Nakaguma. The 4th Infantry was severely understrength because of battle damage, tropical disease, and malnutrition.^[102]

U.S. Marines drag the bodies of dead Japanese soldiers from their bunker in the Point Cruz area after the battle in early November.

The American offensive began on November 1 and, after some difficulty, succeeded in destroying Japanese forces defending the Point Cruz area by November 3, including rear echelon troops sent to reinforce Nakaguma's battered regiment. The Americans appeared to be on the verge of breaking through the Japanese defenses and capturing Kokumbona. At this time, however, other American forces discovered and engaged newly landed Japanese troops near Koli Point on the eastern side of the Lunga perimeter. To counter this new threat, Vandegrift temporarily halted the Matanikau offensive on November 4. The Americans suffered 71 and the Japanese around 400 killed in the offensive.^[103]

At Koli Point early in the morning November 3, five Japanese destroyers delivered 300 army troops to support Shōji and his troops who were en route to Koli Point after the Battle for Henderson Field. Having learned of the planned landing, Vandegrift sent a battalion of Marines under Herman H. Hanneken to intercept the Japanese at Koli. Soon after landing, the Japanese soldiers encountered and drove Hanneken's battalion back towards the Lunga perimeter. In response, Vandegrift ordered Puller's Marine battalion plus two of the 164th infantry battalions, along with Hanneken's battalion, to move towards Koli Point to attack the Japanese forces there.^[104]

As the American troops began to move, Shōji and his soldiers began to arrive at Koli Point. Beginning on November 8, the American troops attempted to encircle Shōji's forces at Gavaga Creek near Koli Point. Meanwhile, Hyakutake ordered Shōji to abandon his positions at Koli and rejoin Japanese forces at Kokumbona in the Matanikau area. A gap existed by way of a swampy creek in the southern side of the American lines. Between November 9 and 11, Shōji and between 2,000 and 3,000 of his men escaped into the jungle to the south. On November 12, the Americans completely overran and killed all the remaining Japanese soldiers left in the pocket. The Americans counted the bodies of 450–475 Japanese dead in the Koli Point area and captured most of Shōji's heavy weapons and provisions. The American forces suffered 40 killed and 120 wounded in the operation.^[105]

Carlson's raiders come ashore at Aola Bay on November 4

Meanwhile, on November 4, two companies from the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson landed by boat at Aola Bay, 40 miles (64 km) east of Lunga Point. Carlson's raiders, along with troops from the U.S. Army's 147th Infantry Regiment, were to provide security for 500 Seabees as they attempted to construct an airfield at that location. Halsey, acting on a recommendation by Turner, had approved the Aola Bay airfield construction effort. The Aola airfield construction effort was later abandoned at the end of November because of unsuitable terrain.^[106]

On November 5, Vandegrift ordered Carlson to take his raiders, march overland from Aola, and attack any of Shōji's forces that had escaped from Koli Point. With the rest of the companies from his battalion, which arrived a few days later, Carlson and his troops set off on a 29-day patrol from Aola to the Lunga perimeter. During the patrol, the raiders fought several battles with Shōji's retreating forces, killing almost 500 of them, while suffering 16 killed themselves. In addition to the losses sustained from attacks by Carlson's raiders, tropical diseases and a lack of food felled many more of Shōji's men. By the time Shōji's forces reached the Lunga River in mid-November, about halfway to the Matanikau, only 1,300 men remained with the main body. When Shōji reached the 17th Army positions west of the Matanikau, only 700 to 800 survivors were still with him. Most of the survivors from Shōji's force joined other Japanese units defending the Mount Austen and upper Matanikau River area.^[107]

Tokyo Express runs on November 5, 7, and 9, delivered additional troops from the Japanese 38th Infantry Division, including most of the 228th Infantry Regiment to Guadalcanal. These fresh troops were quickly emplaced in the Point Cruz and Matanikau area and helped successfully resist further attacks by American forces on November 10 and 18. The Americans and Japanese remained facing each other along a line just west of Point Cruz for the next six weeks.^[108]

Naval Battle of Guadalcanal

Main article: Naval Battle of Guadalcanal

After the defeat in the Battle for Henderson Field, the IJA planned to try again to retake the airfield in November 1942, but further reinforcements were needed before the operation could proceed. The IJA requested assistance from Yamamoto to deliver the needed reinforcements to the island and to support the next offensive. Yamamoto provided 11 large transport ships to carry the remaining 7,000 troops from the 38th Infantry Division, their ammunition, food, and heavy equipment from Rabaul to Guadalcanal. He also provided a warship support force that included two battleships. The two battleships, Hiei and Kirishima, equipped with special fragmentation shells, were to bombard Henderson Field on the night of November 12–13 and destroy it and the aircraft stationed there in order to allow the slow, heavy transports to reach Guadalcanal and unload safely the next day.^[109] The warship force was commanded from Hiei by recently promoted Vice Admiral Hiroaki Abe.^[110]

U.S. Rear Admiral Daniel J. Callaghan

In early November, Allied intelligence learned that the Japanese were preparing again to try to retake Henderson Field.^[111] Therefore, the U.S. sent Task Force 67, a large reinforcement and resupply convoy carrying Marine replacements, two U.S. Army infantry battalions, and ammunition and food, commanded by Turner, to Guadalcanal on November 11. The supply ships were protected by two task groups, commanded by Rear Admirals Daniel J. Callaghan and Norman Scott, and aircraft from Henderson Field.^[112] The ships were attacked several times on November 11 and 12 by Japanese aircraft from Rabaul staging through an air base at Buin, Bougainville, but most were unloaded without serious damage.^[113]

U.S. reconnaissance aircraft spotted the approach of Abe's bombardment force and passed a warning to the Allied command.^[114] Thus warned, Turner detached all usable combat ships under Callaghan to protect the troops ashore from the expected Japanese naval attack and troop landing and ordered the supply ships at Guadalcanal to depart by early evening November 12.^[115] Callaghan's force comprised two heavy cruisers, three light cruisers, and eight destroyers.^[116]

Around 01:30 on November 13, Callaghan's force intercepted Abe's bombardment group between Guadalcanal and Savo Island. In addition to the two battleships, Abe's force included one light cruiser and 11 destroyers. In the pitch darkness,^[117] the two warship forces intermingled before opening fire at unusually close quarters. In the resulting mêlée, Abe's warships sank or severely damaged all but one cruiser and one destroyer in Callaghan's force and both Callaghan and Scott were killed. Two Japanese destroyers were sunk and another destroyer and Hiei heavily damaged. In spite of his defeat of Callaghan's force, Abe ordered his warships to retire without bombarding Henderson Field. Hiei sank later that day after repeated air attacks by CAF aircraft and aircraft from the U.S. carrier Enterprise. Because of Abe's failure to neutralize Henderson Field, Yamamoto ordered the troop transport convoy, under the command of Raizo Tanaka and located near the Shortland Islands, to wait an additional day before heading towards Guadalcanal. Yamamoto ordered Nobutake Kondō to assemble another bombardment force using warships from Truk and Abe's force to attack Henderson Field on November 15.^[118]

In the meantime, around 02:00 on November 14, a cruiser and destroyer force under Gunichi Mikawa from Rabaul conducted an unopposed bombardment of Henderson Field. The bombardment caused some damage but failed to put the airfield or most of its aircraft out of operation. As Mikawa's force retired towards Rabaul, Tanaka's transport convoy, trusting that Henderson Field was now destroyed or heavily damaged, began its run down the slot towards Guadalcanal. Throughout the day of November 14, aircraft from Henderson Field and Enterprise attacked Mikawa's and Tanaka's ships, sinking one heavy cruiser and seven of the transports. Most of the troops were rescued from the transports by Tanaka's escorting destroyers and returned to the Shortlands. After dark, Tanaka and the remaining four transports continued towards Guadalcanal as Kondo's force approached to bombard Henderson Field.^[119]

The U.S. battleship Washington fires at the Japanese battleship Kirishima

In order to intercept Kondo's force, Halsey, who was low on undamaged ships, detached two battleships, Washington and South Dakota, and four destroyers from the Enterprise task force. The U.S. force, under the command of Willis A. Lee aboard Washington, reached Guadalcanal and Savo Island just before midnight on November 14, shortly before Kondo's bombardment force arrived. Kondo's force consisted of Kirishima plus two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and nine destroyers. After the two forces made contact, Kondo's force quickly sank three of the U.S. destroyers and heavily damaged the fourth. The Japanese warships then sighted, opened fire, and damaged South Dakota. As Kondo's warships concentrated on South Dakota, Washington approached the Japanese ships unobserved and opened fire on Kirishima, hitting the Japanese battleship repeatedly and causing fatal damage. After fruitlessly chasing Washington towards the Russell Islands, Kondo ordered his warships to retire without bombarding Henderson Field. One of Kondo's destroyers was also sunk during the engagement.^[120]

As Kondo's ships retired, the four Japanese transports beached themselves near Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal at 04:00 and quickly began unloading. At 05:55, U.S. aircraft and artillery began attacking the beached transports, destroying all four transports along with most of the supplies that they carried. Only 2,000–3,000 of the army troops made it ashore. Because of the failure to deliver most of the troops and supplies, the Japanese were forced to cancel their planned November offensive on Henderson Field making the results of the battle a significant strategic victory for the Allies and marking the beginning of the end of Japanese attempts to retake Henderson Field.^[121]

On November 26, Japanese Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura took command of the newly formed Eighth Area Army at Rabaul. The new command encompassed both Hyakutake's 17th Army and the 18th Army in New Guinea. One of Imamura's first priorities upon assuming command was the continuation of the attempts to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal. The Allied offensive at Buna in New Guinea, however, changed Imamura's priorities. Because the Allied attempt to take Buna was considered a more severe threat to Rabaul, Imamura postponed further major reinforcement efforts to Guadalcanal to concentrate on the situation in New Guinea.^[122]

Battle of Tassafaronga

Main article: Battle of Tassafaronga

The Japanese continued to experience problems in delivering sufficient supplies to sustain their troops on Guadalcanal. Attempts to use only submarines the last two weeks in November failed to provide sufficient food for Hyakutake's forces. A separate attempt to establish bases in the central Solomons to facilitate barge convoys to Guadalcanal also failed because of destructive Allied air attacks. On November 26, the 17th Army notified Imamura that it faced a critical food crisis. Some front-line units had not been resupplied for six days and even the rear-area troops were on one-third rations. The situation forced the Japanese to return to using destroyers to deliver the necessary supplies.^[123]

Raizo Tanaka

Eighth Fleet personnel devised a plan to help reduce the exposure of destroyers delivering supplies to Guadalcanal. Large oil or gas drums were cleaned and filled with medical supplies and food, with enough air space to provide buoyancy, and strung together with rope. When the destroyers arrived at Guadalcanal they would make a sharp turn and the drums would be cut loose and a swimmer or boat from shore could pick up the buoyed end of a rope and return it to the beach, where the soldiers could haul in the supplies.^[124]

The Eighth Fleet's Guadalcanal Reinforcement Unit (the Tokyo Express), currently commanded by Raizo Tanaka, was tasked by Mikawa with making the first of five scheduled runs to Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal using the drum method on the night of November 30. Tanaka's unit was centered around eight destroyers, with six destroyers assigned to carry between 200 to 240 drums of supplies apiece.^[125] Notified by intelligence sources of the Japanese supply attempt, Halsey ordered the newly formed Task Force 67, comprising four cruisers and four destroyers under the command of U.S. Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright, to intercept Tanaka's force off Guadalcanal. Two additional destroyers joined Wright's force en route to Guadalcanal from Espiritu Santo during the day of November 30.^[126]

At 22:40 on November 30, Tanaka's force arrived off Guadalcanal and prepared to unload the supply barrels. Meanwhile, Wright's warships were approaching through Ironbottom Sound from the opposite direction. Wright's destroyers detected Tanaka's force on radar and the destroyer commander requested permission to attack with torpedoes. Wright waited four minutes before giving permission, allowing Tanaka's force to escape from an optimum firing setup. All of the American torpedoes missed their targets. At the same time, Wright's cruisers opened fire, quickly hitting and destroying one of the Japanese guard destroyers. The rest of Tanaka's warships abandoned the supply mission, increased speed, turned, and launched a total of 44 torpedoes in the direction of Wright's cruisers.^[127]

The Japanese torpedoes hit and sank the U.S. cruiser Northampton and heavily damaged the cruisers Minneapolis, New Orleans, and Pensacola. The rest of Tanaka's destroyers escaped without damage, but failed to deliver any of the provisions to Guadalcanal.^[128]

By December 7, 1942, Hyakutake's forces were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground or air attacks.^[129] Further attempts by Tanaka's destroyer forces to deliver provisions on December 3, December 7, and December 11, failed to alleviate the crisis, and one of Tanaka's destroyers was sunk by a U.S. PT boat torpedo.^[130]

Japanese decision to withdraw

Main article: Operation Ke

On December 12, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. At the same time, several army staff officers at the Imperial General Headquarters (IGH) also suggested that further efforts to retake Guadalcanal would be impossible. A delegation, led by IJA Colonel Joichiro Sanada, chief of the IGH's operations section, visited Rabaul on December 19 and consulted Imamura and his staff. Upon the delegation's return to Tokyo, Sanada recommended that Guadalcanal be abandoned. The IGH's top leaders agreed with Sanada's recommendation on December 26 and ordered their staffs to begin drafting plans for a withdrawal from Guadalcanal, establishment of a new defense line in the central Solomons, and a shifting of priorities and resources to the campaign in New Guinea.^[131]

On December 28, General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano personally informed Emperor Hirohito of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal. On December 31, the Emperor formally endorsed the decision. The Japanese secretly began to prepare for the evacuation, called Operation Ke, scheduled to begin during the latter part of January 1943.^[132]

Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse

Main article: Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse

U.S. Army Major General Alexander Patch (center) succeeds Vandegrift (right) on December 9, 1942.

By December, the weary 1st Marine Division was withdrawn for recuperation, and over the course of the next month the U.S. XIV Corps took over operations on the island. This corps consisted of the 2nd Marine Division and the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry and Americal Divisions. U.S. Army Major General Alexander Patch replaced Vandegrift as commander of Allied forces on Guadalcanal, which by January totaled just over 50,000 men.^[133]

On December 18, Allied (mainly U.S. Army) forces began attacking Japanese positions on Mount Austen. A strong Japanese fortified position, called the Gifu, stymied the attacks and the Americans were forced to temporarily halt their offensive on January 4.^[134]

The Allies renewed the offensive on January 10, reattacking the Japanese on Mount Austen as well as on two nearby ridges called the Seahorse and the Galloping Horse. After some difficulty, the Allies captured all three by January 23. At the same time, U.S. Marines advanced along the north coast of the island, making significant gains. The Americans lost about 250 killed in the operation while the Japanese suffered around 3,000 killed–about 12 to 1 in the Americans' favor.^[135]

Ke evacuation

See also: Battle of Rennell Island

On January 14, a Tokyo Express run delivered a battalion of troops to act as a rear guard for the Ke evacuation. A staff officer from Rabaul accompanied the troops to notify Hyakutake of the decision to withdraw. At the same time, Japanese warships and aircraft moved into position around the Rabaul and Bougainville areas in preparation to execute the withdrawal operation. Allied intelligence detected the Japanese movements, but misinterpreted them as preparations for another attempt to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal.^[136]

USS Chicago sinking on January 30 during the Battle of Rennell Island.

Patch, wary of what he thought to be an imminent Japanese offensive, committed only a relatively small portion of his troops to continue a slow-moving offensive against Hyakutake's forces. On January 29, Halsey, acting on the same intelligence, sent a resupply convoy to Guadalcanal screened by a cruiser task force. Sighting the cruiser task force, Japanese naval torpedo bombers attacked the task force that same evening and heavily damaged the U.S. cruiser Chicago. The next day, more torpedo aircraft attacked and sank Chicago. Halsey ordered the remainder of the task force to return to base and directed the rest of his naval forces to take station in the Coral Sea, south of Guadalcanal, to be ready to counter the perceived Japanese offensive.^[137]

In the meantime, the Japanese 17th Army withdrew to the west coast of Guadalcanal while rear guard units checked the American offensive. On the night of February 1, 20 destroyers from Mikawa's 8th Fleet under Shintaro Hashimoto successfully extracted 4,935 soldiers, mainly from the 38th Division, from the island. The Japanese and the Americans each lost a destroyer from air and naval attacks related to the evacuation mission.^[138]

On the nights of February 4 and 7, Hashimoto and his destroyers completed the evacuation of most of the remaining Japanese forces from Guadalcanal. Apart from some air attacks, Allied forces, still anticipating a large Japanese offensive, did not attempt to interdict Hashimoto's evacuation runs. In total, the Japanese successfully evacuated 10,652 men from Guadalcanal. On February 9, Patch realized that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure for Allied forces, ending the campaign.^[139]

Aftermath

Allied commanders assemble on Guadalcanal in August 1943 to plan the next Allied offensive against the Japanese in the Solomons as part of Operation Cartwheel.

After the Japanese withdrawal, Guadalcanal and Tulagi were developed into major bases supporting the Allied advance further up the Solomon Islands chain. In addition to Henderson Field, two additional fighter runways were constructed at Lunga Point and a bomber airfield was built at Koli Point. Extensive naval port and logistics facilities were established at Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida. The anchorage around Tulagi became an important advanced base for Allied warships and transport ships supporting the Solomon Islands Campaign. Major ground units were staged through large encampments and barracks on Guadalcanal before deployment further up the Solomons.^[140]

After Guadalcanal the Japanese were clearly on the defensive in the Pacific. The constant pressure to reinforce Guadalcanal had weakened Japanese efforts in other theaters, contributing to a successful Australian and American counteroffensive in New Guinea which culminated in the capture of the key bases of Buna and Gona in early 1943. The Allies had gained a strategic initiative which they never relinquished. In June, the Allies launched Operation Cartwheel, which, after modification in August, 1943, formalized the strategy of isolating Rabaul and cutting its sea lines of communication. The subsequent successful neutralization of Rabaul and the forces centered there facilitated the South West Pacific campaign under General Douglas MacArthur and Central Pacific island hopping campaign under Admiral Chester Nimitz, with both efforts successfully advancing toward Japan. The remaining Japanese defenses in the South Pacific area were then either destroyed or bypassed by Allied forces as the war progressed to its ultimate conclusion.^[141]

Significance

Resources

The Battle of Guadalcanal was one of the first prolonged campaigns in the Pacific, alongside the related and concurrent Solomon Islands campaign. Both campaigns were battles that strained the logistical capabilities of the combatant nations involved. For the U.S., this need prompted the development of effective combat air transport for the first time. A failure to achieve air superiority forced Japan to rely on reinforcement by barges, destroyers, and submarines, with very uneven results. Early in the campaign, the Americans were hindered by a lack of resources, as they suffered heavy losses in cruisers and carriers, with replacements from ramped-up shipbuilding programs still months off from materializing.^[142]

Henderson Field in August 1944.

The U.S. Navy suffered such high personnel losses during the campaign that it refused to publicly release total casualty figures for years. However, as the campaign continued, and the American public became more and more aware of the plight and perceived heroism of the American forces on Guadalcanal, more forces were dispatched to the area. This spelled trouble for Japan as its military-industrial complex was unable to match the output of American industry and manpower. Thus, as the campaign wore on the Japanese were losing irreplaceable units while the Americans were rapidly replacing and even augmenting their forces.^[142]

The Guadalcanal campaign was costly to Japan strategically and in material losses and manpower. Roughly 25,000 experienced ground troops were killed during the campaign. The drain on resources directly contributed to Japan's failure to achieve its objectives in the New Guinea campaign. Japan also lost control of the southern Solomons and the ability to interdict Allied shipping to Australia. Japan's major base at Rabaul was now further directly threatened by Allied air power. Most importantly, scarce Japanese land, air, and naval forces had disappeared forever into the Guadalcanal jungle and surrounding sea. The Japanese could not replace the aircraft and ships destroyed and sunk in this campaign, as well as their highly trained and veteran crews, especially the naval aircrews, nearly as quickly as the Allies.^[143]

Strategic

After the victory at the Battle of Midway America was able to establish naval parity in the Pacific. However, this fact alone did not change the direction of the war. It was only after the Allied victories in Guadalcanal and New Guinea that the Japanese offensive thrust was ended and the strategic initiative passed to the Allies, as it proved, permanently. The Guadalcanal Campaign ended all Japanese expansion attempts and placed the Allies in a position of clear supremacy.^[144] It thus can be argued that this Allied victory was the first step in a long string of successes that eventually led to the surrender of Japan and the occupation of the Japanese home islands.^[143]

A dead Japanese soldier on Guadalcanal in January 1943.

The "Europe first" policy of the United States had initially only allowed for defensive actions against Japanese expansion, in order to focus resources on defeating Germany. However, Admiral King's argument for the Guadalcanal invasion, as well as its successful implementation, convinced President Franklin D. Roosevelt that the Pacific Theater could be pursued offensively as well.^[145] By the end of 1942, it was clear that Japan had lost the Guadalcanal campaign, a serious blow to Japan's strategic plans for defense of their empire and an unanticipated defeat at the hands of the Americans.^[146]

Perhaps as important as the military victory for the Allies was the psychological victory. On a level playing field, the Allies had beaten Japan's best land, air, and warship forces. After Guadalcanal, Allied personnel regarded the Japanese military with much less fear and awe than previously. In addition, the Allies viewed the eventual outcome of the Pacific War with greatly increased optimism.^[147]

Guadalcanal is no longer merely a name of an island in Japanese military history. It is the name of the graveyard of the Japanese army.

—Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi, IJA
Commander, 35th Infantry Brigade at Guadalcanal^[148]
 

Beyond Kawaguchi, several Japanese political and military leaders, including Naoki Hoshino, Osami Nagano, and Torashirō Kawabe, stated shortly after the war that Guadalcanal was the decisive turning point in the conflict. Said Kawabe, "As for the turning point [of the war], when the positive action ceased or even became negative, it was, I feel, at Guadalcanal."^[149]

See also

• Guadalcanal Order of Battle
• Ironbottom Sound
• New Georgia Sound
• Cub-1

Accounts

• Guadalcanal Diary (book)
• Pride of the Marines (film)
• The Thin Red Line (novel)
• The Pacific (TV miniseries)
• The Gallant Hours (film)
• Helmet for My Pillow (book)

Notes

1. ^ Zimmerman, p. 173–175 documents the participation by native Solomon Islanders in the campaign [1]. Guadalcanal and the rest of the Solomon Islands were under British political control during World War II with the exception of the North Solomon Islands including Bougainville and Buka which were part of Australia's Papua New Guinea mandate.
2. ^ Vava'u Press Ltd, Matangi Tonga Online, 2006 [2] states that 28 Tongan soldiers fought on Guadalcanal, with two of them killed in action.
3. ^ Jersey, p. 356–358. Assisting the Americans in the latter stages of campaign were Fijiian commandos led by officers and non-commissioned officer from the New Zealand Expeditionary Force.
4. ^ Frank, p. 57, 619–621; and Rottman, p. 64. Approximately 20,000 U.S. Marines and 40,000 U.S. Army troops were deployed on Guadalcanal at different times during the campaign.
5. ^ Rottman, p. 65. 31,400 men Imperial Japanese Army and 4,800 men Imperial Japanese Navy troops were deployed to Guadalcanal during the campaign. Jersey claims that 50,000 total Japanese army and navy troops were sent to Guadalcanal and that most of the original naval garrison of 1,000–2,000 men was successfully evacuated in November and December 1942 by Tokyo Express warships (Jersey, p. 348–350).
6. ^ Frank, p. 598–618; and Lundstrom, p. 456. 85 Australians were killed in the Battle of Savo Island. Total Solomon Islander deaths are unknown. Most of the rest, if not all, of those killed were American. Numbers include personnel killed by all causes including combat, disease, and accidents. Losses include 1,768 dead (ground), 4,911 dead (naval), and 420 dead (aircrew). Four U.S. aircrew were captured by the Japanese during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and survived their captivity. An unknown number of other U.S. ground, naval, and aircrew personnel were, according to Japanese records, captured by Japanese forces during the campaign but did not survive their captivity and the dates and manners of most of their deaths are unknown (Jersey, p. 346, 449). Captured Japanese documents revealed that two captured Marine scouts had been tied to trees and then vivisected while still alive and conscious by an army surgeon as a medical demonstration (Clemens, p. 295). Ships sunk includes both warships and "large" auxiliaries. Aircraft destroyed includes both combat and operational losses.
7. ^ Frank, p. 598–618, Shaw, p. 52, and Rottman, p. 65. Numbers include personnel killed by all causes including combat, disease, and accidents. Losses include 24,600–25,600 dead (ground), 3,543 dead (naval), and 2,300 dead (aircrew). Approximately 9,000 died from disease. Most of the captured personnel were Korean slave laborers assigned to Japanese naval construction units. Ships sunk includes warships and "large" auxiliaries. Aircraft destroyed includes both combat and operational losses.
8. ^ Keegan, John (1989). The Second World War. Glenfield, Auckland 10, New Zealand: Hutchinson. 
9. ^ Murray, p. 169–195.
10. ^ Murray, p. 196.
11. ^ Loxton, p. 3.
12. ^ Alexander, p. 72, Frank, p. 23–31, 129, 628; Smith, p. 5; Bullard, p. 119, Lundstrom, p. 39, Bullard, p. 127. The Japanese aircraft assigned to Guadalcanal were to come from the 26th Air Flotilla, then located at bases in the Central Pacific (Bullard).
13. ^ Bowen, James. Despite Pearl Harbor, America adopts a 'Germany First' strategy. The Pacific War from Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal. Pacific War Historical Society. http://www.pacificwar.org.au/GermanyFirst/GermanyFirst.html. Retrieved December 30, 2007. 
14. ^ Morison, p. 12, Frank, p. 15–16, Miller, Cartwheel, p. 5.
15. ^ Murray, p. 199–200; Jersey, p. 85; and Lundstrom, p. 5.
16. ^ Loxton, p. 5; and Miller, p. 11.
17. ^ Frank, p. 35–37, 53.
18. ^ Bullard, p. 122.
19. ^ Morison, p. 15; and McGee, p. 20–21.
20. ^ Frank, p. 57, 619–621.
21. ^ Ken Burns: The War, Episode 1
22. ^ McGee, p. 21, Bullard, pp. 125–126. Several patrol aircraft from Tulagi searched the very area where the Allied invasion convoy was moving, but missed seeing the Allied ships because of severe storms and heavy clouds (Bullard). Masaichiro Miyagawa, a Japanese defender stationed on Tanambogo who was captured by American forces (one of four Japanese out of 3,000 stationed in the area to survive the battle), wrote that on a daily basis four Japanese patrol planes were sent out from Florida Island in the shape of a fan, flying northeast, east, southeast and south of Florida Island to reconnoiter for enemy activity. Because of poor weather conditions, he writes that the invading Allied armada escaped detection, and that if the invasion fleet had been spotted a day or two prior to August 7, the Allied fleet, with its slow moving transports, most likely would have been destroyed (Guadalcanal Echoes, Volume 21, No. 1 Winter 2009/2010 Edition, page 8, (Publication of the Guadalcanal Campaign Veterans, [American veterans group])
23. ^ Frank, p. 60; Jersey, p. 95. The landing force, designated Task Force 62, included six heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, 15 destroyers, 13 transports, six cargo ships, four destroyer transports, and five minesweepers.
24. ^ Hammel, p. 46–47; and Lundstrom, p. 38.
25. ^ Frank, p. 51.
26. ^ Frank, p. 50. The IJN personnel included Japanese and Korean construction specialists as well as trained combat troops.
27. ^ Shaw, p. 8–9; and McGee, p. 32–34.
28. ^ Frank, p. 79. Approximately 80 Japanese personnel escaped to Florida Island, where they were found and killed by Marine patrols over the next two months.
29. ^ Jersey, p. 113–115, 190, 350; Morison, p. 15; and Frank, p. 61–62 & 81.
30. ^ Loxton, p. 90–103.
31. ^ Frank, p. 80.
32. ^ Hammel, p. 99; and Loxton, p. 104–5. Loxton, Frank (p. 94), and Morison (p. 28) contend Fletcher's fuel situation was not at all critical, but Fletcher implied it was in order to provide further justification for his withdrawal from the battle area.
33. ^ Hammel, p. 100.
34. ^ Morison, p. 31.
35. ^ Hornfischer, p. 44-92
36. ^ Morison, p. 19–59.
37. ^ Smith, p. 14–15. At this time there were exactly 10,819 Marines on Guadalcanal (Frank, p. 125–127).
38. ^ Smith, p. 16–17.
39. ^ Shaw, p. 13.
40. ^ Smith, p. 20, 35–36.
41. ^ Zimmerman, p. 58–60; Smith, p. 35; and Jersey, p. 196–199. Goettge was one of the first killed. Only three made it back to the Lunga Point perimeter. Seven Japanese were killed in the skirmish. More details of the event are at: Clark, Jack, "Goettge Patrol ", Pacific Wreck Database [3] and Broderson, Ben, "Franklin native recalls key WWII battle".
42. ^ Frank, p. 132–133; Jersey, p. 203; and Smith, p. 36–42. The 500 Japanese involved were from the 84th Guard Unit, 11th and 13th Construction Units, and the recently arrived 1st Camp Relief Unit. After this engagement, the Japanese naval personnel relocated deeper into the hills in the interior of the island.
43. ^ Shaw, p. 18.
44. ^ Frank, p. 147.
45. ^ Smith, p. 88; Evans, p. 158; and Frank, p. 141–143. The Ichiki regiment was named after its commanding officer and was part of the 7th Division from Hokkaido. The Aoba regiment, from the 2nd Division, took its name from Aoba Castle in Sendai, because most of the soldiers in the regiment were from Miyagi prefecture (Rottman, Japanese Army, p. 52). Ichiki's regiment had been assigned to invade and occupy Midway, but were on their way back to Japan after the invasion was cancelled following the Japanese defeat in the Battle of Midway. Although some histories state that Ichiki's regiment was at Truk, Raizo Tanaka, in Evans' book, states that he dropped off Ichiki's regiment at Guam after the Battle of Midway. Ichiki's regiment was subsequently loaded on ships for transport elsewhere but were rerouted to Truk after the Allied landings on Guadalcanal. Robert Leckie, who was at Guadalcanal, remembers the events of the Battle of the Tenaru in his book Helmet For My Pillow, "Everyone had forgotten the fight and was watching the carnage, when shouting swept up the line. A group of Japanese dashed along the opposite river edge, racing in our direction. Their appearance so surprised everyone that there were no shots." (Robert Leckie Helmet For My Pillow Bantam Books Trade Paperback Edition 2010 pp. 82–83)
46. ^ Steinberg, Rafael, Island Fighting, Time-Life Books (1978) p.30
47. ^ Frank, p. 156–158 & 681; and Smith, p. 43.
48. ^ Smith, p. 33–34.
49. ^ Zimmerman, p. 70; and Frank, p. 159.
50. ^ Hammel, p. 124–125, 157.
51. ^ Hara, p. 118–119; and Hough, p. 293. An unknown, but "large" number of the 5th Yokosuka troops were killed in the sinking of their transport ship.
52. ^ Zimmerman, p. 74.
53. ^ Hough, p. 297.
54. ^ Frank, p. 194–213; and Lundstrom, p. 45. In comparison to the 560 miles (900 km) separating Lunga Point from Rabaul, Berlin was about 460 miles (740 km) from Allied air bases in eastern England. Later United States Admiral of the Fleet, William F. Halsey paid tribute to Australian Coastwatchers, "The Coastwatchers saved Guadalcanal, and Guadalcanal saved the South Pacific." Also see: Behind Enemy Lines: An Amateur Radio Operator’s Amazing Tale of Bravery
55. ^ Morison, p. 15; and Hough, p. 298.
56. ^ Smith, p. 103; and Hough, p. 298.
57. ^ Zimmerman, p. 78–79.
58. ^ Frank, Guadalcanal, p. 197.
59. ^ Smith, p. 79, 91–92 & 94–95.
60. ^ Griffith, p. 113; and Frank, pp. 198–199, 205, and 266. The term "rat transportation" was used because, like a rat, the Japanese ships were active at night. The 35th Infantry Brigade, from the 18th Division, contained 3,880 troops and was centered on the 124th Infantry Regiment with various attached supporting units (Alexander, p. 139).
61. ^ Morison, p. 113–114.
62. ^ Frank, p. 201–203; Griffith, p. 116–124; and Smith, p. 87–112.
63. ^ Frank, p. 218–219.
64. ^ Frank, p. 219–220; and Smith, p. 113–115 & 243. Most of the men in Ichiki's second echelon were from Asahikawa, Hokkaidō. "Kuma" refers to the brown bears that lived in that area.
65. ^ Frank, p. 220; and Smith, p. 121.
66. ^ Zimmerman, p. 80; and Griffith, p. 125.
67. ^ Hough, p. 298–299; Frank, p. 221–222; Smith, p. 129; and Griffith, p. 129–130.
68. ^ Griffith, p. 130–132; Frank, p. 221–222; and Smith, p. 130.
69. ^ Frank, p. 223 & 225–226; Griffith, p. 132 & 134–135; and Smith, p. 130–131, 138.
70. ^ Smith, p. 161–167. The Marine defenders that finally defeated Kokusho's charge were most likely from the 11th Marines with assistance from the 1st Pioneer Battalion (Smith, p. 167; and Frank, p. 235).
71. ^ Smith, p. 162–193; Frank, p. 237–246; and Griffith, p. 141–147.
72. ^ Griffith, p. 144; and Smith, p. 184–194.
73. ^ Smith, p. 197–198.
74. ^ Evans, p. 179–180; Frank, p. 247–252; Griffith, p. 156; and Smith, p. 198–200.
75. ^ Frank, p. 263.
76. ^ Frank, p. 264–265.
77. ^ Frank, p. 272.
78. ^ Griffith, p. 152; Frank, p. 224, 251–254, & 266; Jersey, p. 248–249; and Smith, p. 132 & 158.
79. ^ Smith, p. 204; and Frank, p. 270.
80. ^ Smith, p. 204–215, Frank, p. 269–274, Zimmerman, p. 96–101.
81. ^ Griffith, p. 169–176; Frank, p. 282–290; and Hough, p. 318–322.
82. ^ Frank, p. 290–291. 15 of the Marines and the three U.S. Navy sailors were killed when the Higgins boat carrying them from Tulagi to Aola Bay on Guadalcanal was lost. One of the Japanese killed in the raid was "Ishimoto", a Japanese intelligence agent who had worked in the Solomon Islands area prior to the war and had participated in the murder of two Catholic priests and two nuns at Tasimboko on September 3, 1942.
83. ^ Rottman, p. 61; Griffith, p. 152; Frank, p. 224, 251–254, 266–268, & 289–290; Dull, p. 225–226; and Smith, p. 132 & 158.
84. ^ Frank, p. 293–297; Morison, p. 147–149; and Dull, p. 225. Since not all of the Task Force 64 warships were available, Scott's force was designated as Task Group 64.2. The U.S. destroyers were from Squadron 12, commanded by Captain Robert G. Tobin in Farenholt.
85. ^ Frank, p. 295–296; Hackett, HIJMS Aoba: Tabular Record of Movement; Morison, p. 149–151; D'Albas, p. 183; and Dull, p. 226.
86. ^ Hornfischer, p. 157-188
87. ^ Frank, p. 299–324; Morison, p. 154–171; and Dull, p. 226–230.
88. ^ Frank, p. 313–315. The 16th was from the 2nd Division and the 230th from the 38th Division.
89. ^ Evans, p. 181–182; Frank, p. 315–320; Morison, p. 171–175. Raizo Tanaka commanded Destroyer Squadron 2 which was part of the battleship's screen.
90. ^ Frank, p. 319–321.
91. ^ Frank, p. 321–326; Hough, p. 327–328.
92. ^ Shaw, p. 34; and Rottman, p. 63.
93. ^ Rottman, p. 61; Frank, p. 289–340; Hough, p. 322–330; Griffith, p. 186–187; Dull, p. 226–230; Morison, p. 149–171. The Japanese troops delivered to Guadalcanal during this time comprised the entire 2nd (Sendai) Infantry Division, two battalions from the 38th Infantry Division, and various artillery, tank, engineer, and other support units. Kawaguchi's forces also included what remained of the 3rd Battalion, 124th Infantry Regiment, which was originally part of the 35th Infantry Brigade commanded by Kawaguchi during the Battle of Edson's Ridge.
94. ^ Miller, p. 155; Frank, p. 339–341; Hough, p. 330; Rottman, p. 62; Griffith, p. 187–188. Hyakutake sent a member of his staff, Colonel Masanobu Tsuji to monitor the 2nd Division's progress along the trail and to report to him on whether the attack could begin on October 22 as scheduled. Masanobu Tsuji has been identified by some historians as the most likely culprit behind the Bataan death march.
95. ^ Griffith, p. 193; Frank, p. 346–348; Rottman, p. 62.
96. ^ Hough, p. 332–333; Frank, p. 349–350; Rottman, p. 62–63; Griffith, p. 195–196; Miller, p. 157–158. The Marines lost 2 killed in the action. Japanese infantry losses are not recorded but were, according to Frank, "unquestionably severe." Griffith says that 600 Japanese soldiers were killed. Only 17 of the 44 members of the 1st Independent Tank Company survived the battle.
97. ^ Frank, p. 361–362.
98. ^ Hough, p. 336; Frank, p. 353–362; Griffith, p. 197–204; Miller, p. 147–151, 160–162; Lundstrom, p. 343–352. The 164th became the first Army unit to engage in combat in the war and was later awarded the Presidential Unit Citation.
99. ^ Frank, 363–406, 418, 424, and 553; Zimmerman, p. 122–123; Griffith, p. 204; Hough, p. 337; Rottman, p. 63. Silver Star medals were awarded to Sgt. Norman Greber of Ohio, Pvt. Don Reno of Texas, Pvt. Jack Bando of Oregon, Pvt. Stan Ralph of New York, and Cpl. Michael Randall of New York for their actions during the battle.
100. ^ Morison, p. 199–207; Frank, p. 368–378; Dull, p. 235–237.
101. ^ Dull, p. 237–244; Frank, p. 379–403; Morison, p. 207–224.
102. ^ Hough, p. 343; Hammel, p. 135; Griffith, p. 214–15; Frank, p. 411; Anderson; Shaw, p. 40–41; Zimmerman, p. 130–31.
103. ^ Shaw, p. 40–41; Griffith, p. 215–218; Hough, p. 344–345; Zimmerman, p. 131–133; Frank, p. 412–420; Hammel, p. 138–139.
104. ^ Zimmerman, p. 133–138; Griffith, p. 217–219; Hough, p. 347–348; Frank, p. 414–418; Miller, p. 195–197; Hammel, p. 141; Shaw, p. 41–42; Jersey, p. 297. Jersey states that the troops landed were from the 2nd Company, 230th Infantry commanded by 1st Lt Tamotsu Shinno plus the 6th Battery, 28th Mountain Artillery Regiment with the two guns.
105. ^ Zimmerman, p. 133–141; Griffith, p. 217–223; Hough, p. 347–350; Frank, p. 414–423; Miller, p. 195–200; Hammel, p. 141–144; Shaw, p. 41–42; Jersey, p. 297–305.
106. ^ Peatross, p. 132–133; Frank, p. 420–421; Hoffman. The two 2nd Raider companies sent to Aola were Companies C and E. The Aola construction units moved to Koli Point where they successfully built an auxiliary airfield beginning on December 3, 1942. (Miller, p. 174.)
107. ^ Hough, p. 348–350; Shaw, p. 42–43; Frank, p. 420–424; Griffith, p. 246; Miller, p. 197–200; Zimmerman, p. 136–145, Jersey, p. 361.
108. ^ Frank, p. 420–421, 424–25, 493–497; Anderson; Hough, p. 350–58; Zimmerman, p. 150–52.
109. ^ Hammel, p. 41–46.
110. ^ Hammel, p. 93.
111. ^ Hammel, p. 37.
112. ^ Hammel, p. 38–39; Frank, p. 429–430. The American reinforcements totaled 5,500 men and included the 1st Marine Aviation Engineer Battalion, replacements for ground and air units, the 4th Marine Replacement Battalion, two battalions of the U.S. Army's 182nd Infantry Regiment, and ammunition and supplies.
113. ^ Frank, p. 432; Hammel, p. 50–90.
114. ^ Hara, p. 137.
115. ^ Hammel, p. 92.
116. ^ Hammel, p. 99–107.
117. ^ New moon Nov 8, 1942 15:19 hours: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Phases of the Moon: 1901 to 2000
118. ^ Frank, p. 428–461; Hammel, p. 103–401; Hara, p. 137–156.
119. ^ Frank, p. 465–474; Hammel, p. 298–345. The American air sorties were possible due to a supply of 488 55-gallon drums of 100-octane gas that was hidden in a secluded area under the jungle canopy by Cub-1 sailor, August Martello.
120. ^ Hammel, p. 349–395; Frank, p. 469–486.
121. ^ Frank, p. 484–488, 527; Hammel, p. 391–395.
122. ^ Dull, p. 261, Frank, p. 497–499. On December 24, the 8th Fleet, 11th Air Fleet, and all other Japanese naval units in the New Guinea and Solomon Islands areas were combined under one command, designated the Southeast Area Fleet with Jinichi Kusaka in command.
123. ^ Evans, p. 197–198, Crenshaw, p. 136, Frank, p. 499–502.
124. ^ Hara, p. 160–161, Roscoe, p. 206, Dull, p. 262, Evans, p. 197–198, Crenshaw, p. 137, Toland, p. 419, Frank, p. 502, Morison, p. 295.
125. ^ Dull, p. 262–263, Evans, p. 198–199, Crenshaw, p. 137, Morison, p. 297, Frank, p. 502–504.
126. ^ Brown, p. 124–125, USSBS, p. 139, Roscoe, p. 206, Dull,p. 262, Crenshaw, p. 26–33, Kilpatrick, p. 139–142, Morison, p. 294–296, Frank, p. 504.
127. ^ Hara, p. 161–164, Dull, p. 265, Evans, p. 199–202, Crenshaw, p. 34, 63, 139–151, Morison, p. 297–305, Frank, p. 507–510.
128. ^ Dull, p. 265, Crenshaw, p. 56–66, Morison, p. 303–312, Frank, p. 510–515.
129. ^ Frank, Guadalcanal, p. 527.
130. ^ Dull, p. 266–267; Evans, p. 203–205; Morison, p. 318–319; Frank, p. 518–521.
131. ^ Jersey, p. 384, Frank, p. 536–538, Griffith, p. 268, Hayashi, p. 62–64, Toland, p. 426.
132. ^ Hayashi, p. 62–64, Griffith, p. 268, Frank, p. 534–539, Toland, p. 424–426, Dull, p. 261, Morison, p. 318–321. During the conference with Sugiyama and Nagano, the Emperor asked Nagano, "Why was it that it took the Americans just a few days to build an air base and the Japanese more than a month or so?" (The IJN originally occupied Guadalcanal and began constructing the airfield). Nagano apologized and replied that the Americans had used machines while the Japanese had to rely on manpower (Toland, p. 426.).
133. ^ Frank, p. 247–252, 293, 417–420, 430–431, 521–522, 529 Griffith, p. 156, 257–259, 270, Miller, p. 143, 173–177, 183, 189, 213–219, Jersey, p. 304–305, 345–346, 363, 365, Hough, p. 360–362, Shaw, p. 46–47, Zimmerman, p. 156–157, 164. The Americal Division infantry regiments were national guard units. The 164th was from North Dakota, the 182nd from Massachusetts, and the 132nd from Illinois. The 147th had previously been part of the 37th Infantry Division. During its time on Guadalcanal, the 1st Marine Division suffered 650 killed, 31 missing, 1,278 injured, and 8,580 who contracted some type of disease, mainly malaria. The 2nd Marine Regiment had arrived at Guadalcanal with most of the 1st Marine Division, but remained behind to rejoin its parent unit, the 2nd Marine Division. The U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Division's 35th Regiment arrived at Guadalcanal on December 17, the 27th Regiment on January 1, and the 161st Regiment on January 4. The 2nd Marine Division's headquarter's units, the 6th Marine Regiment, and various Marine weapons and support units also arrived on January 4 and January 6. U.S. Major General John Marston, commander of the 2nd Marine Division, remained in New Zealand because he was superior in time in rank to Patch. Instead, Brigadier General Alphonse De Carre commanded the 2nd Marine Division on Guadalcanal. The total number of Marines on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on January 6, 1943 was 18,383.
134. ^ Frank, p. 529–534, Miller, p. 231–237, 244, 249–252, Jersey, p. 350–351, Anderson, Hough, p. 363–364, Griffith, p. 263–265.
135. ^ Frank, p. 563–567, Miller, p. 290–305, Jersey, p. 367–371.
136. ^ Miller, p. 338, Frank, p. 540–560, Morison, p. 333–339, Rottman, p. 64, Griffith, p. 269–279, Jersey, p. 384–388, Hayashi, p. 64.
137. ^ Hough, p. 367–368, Frank, p. 568-576, Miller, p. 319–342, Morison, p. 342–350. After unloading their cargo, the U.S. transports evacuated the 2nd Marine Regiment from the island. The 2nd Marines had been on Guadalcanal since the beginning of the campaign.
138. ^ Frank, p. 582–588, 757–758, Jersey, p. 376–378, Morison, p. 364–368, Miller, p. 343–345, Zimmerman, p. 162, Dull, p. 268.
139. ^ Frank, p. 589–597, Jersey, p. 378–383, 383, 400–401, Miller p. 342–348.
140. ^ U.S. Navy, Building the Navy's Bases in World War II, p. 246–256.
141. ^ Hough, p. 374, Zimmerman, p. 166.
142. ^ ^{a b} Murray, p. 215, Hough, p. 372.
143. ^ ^{a b} Hough, p. 372, Miller, p. 350, Zimmerman, p. 166.
144. ^ Willmott, Barrier and the Javelin, pp.522–523; Parshall and Tully, Shattered Sword, pp.416–430.
145. ^ Hornfischer, Neptune's Inferno, p. 11-15
146. ^ Willmott, H. P; Robin Cross, Charles Messenger (2006) [2004]. "American Offensives in the Pacific". In Dennis Cowe. World War II. London: Dorling Kindersley. pp. g. 208. ISBN 1-4053-1262-9. ;Miller, p. 350, Shaw, p. 52, Alexander, p. 81.
147. ^ Murray, p. 215.
148. ^ Quoted in Leckie (1999) p. 9 and others
149. ^ Zimmerman, p. 167.

References

Books

• Alexander, Joseph H. (2000). Edson's Raiders: The 1st Marine Raider Battalion in World War II. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-020-7. 
• Bergerud, Eric M. (1997). Touched with Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-024696-7. 
• Clemens, Martin (2004 (reissue)). Alone on Guadalcanal: A Coastwatcher's Story. Bluejacket Books. ISBN 1-59114-124-9. 
• Crenshaw, Russell Sydnor (1998). South Pacific Destroyer: The Battle for the Solomons from Savo Island to Vella Gulf. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-136-X. 
• Dull, Paul S. (1978). A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-097-1. 
• Evans, David C. (1986). "The Struggle for Guadalcanal". The Japanese Navy in World War II: In the Words of Former Japanese Naval Officers (2nd ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-316-4. 
• Frank, Richard (1990). Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-58875-4. 
• Gilbert, Oscar E. (2001). Marine Tank Battles of the Pacific. Combined Publishing. ISBN 1-58097-050-8. 
• Griffith, Samuel B. (1963). The Battle for Guadalcanal. Champaign, Illinois, USA: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06891-2. 
• Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Guadalcanal: a Selected Bibliography of the Geology, Natural History, and the History of Guadalcanal." Alexandria, Virginia: Topographic Engineering Center. 360 pages. Lists sources of information regarding the bodies of the US Marines of the Lt Col. Frank B. Goettge Reconnaissance patrol that was ambushed in August 1942.
• Hammel, Eric (1999). Carrier Clash: The Invasion of Guadalcanal & The Battle of the Eastern Solomons August 1942. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: Zenith Press. ISBN 0-7603-2052-7. 
• Hammel, Eric (1999). Carrier Strike: The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, October 1942. Pacifica Press. ISBN 0-935553-37-1. 
• Hara, Tameichi (1961). Japanese Destroyer Captain. New York & Toronto: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-27894-1. 
• Hayashi, Saburo (1959). Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War. Marine Corps. Association. ASIN B000ID3YRK. 
• Hornfischer, James D. (2011). Neptune's Inferno: The U.S. Navy at Guadalcanal. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-80670-0. 
• Jersey, Stanley Coleman (2008). Hell's Islands: The Untold Story of Guadalcanal. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-616-5. 
• Kilpatrick, C. W. (1987). Naval Night Battles of the Solomons. Exposition Press. ISBN 0-682-40333-4. 
• Loxton, Bruce; Chris Coulthard-Clark (1997). The Shame of Savo: Anatomy of a Naval Disaster. Australia: Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd. ISBN 1-86448-286-9. 
• Lundstrom, John B. (2005 (New edition)). The First Team And the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-472-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=xtaTS-POl-UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
• Manchester, William (1979). Goodbye, Darkness A Memoir of the Pacific. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. ISBN 0-316-54501-5. 
• McGee, William L. (2002). The Solomons Campaigns, 1942–1943: From Guadalcanal to Bougainville—Pacific War Turning Point, Volume 2 (Amphibious Operations in the South Pacific in WWII). BMC Publications. ISBN 0-9701678-7-3. 
• Miller, Thomas G. (1969). Cactus Air Force. Admiral Nimitz Foundation. ISBN 0-934841-17-9. 
• Morison, Samuel Eliot (1958). The Struggle for Guadalcanal, August 1942 – February 1943, vol. 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-58305-7. 
• Murray, Williamson; Allan R. Millett (2001). A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War. United States of America: Belknap Press. ISBN 0-674-00680-1. 
• Peatross, Oscar F.; John P. McCarthy and John Clayborne (editors) (1995). Bless 'em All: The Raider Marines of World War II. Review. ISBN 0-9652325-0-6. 
• Rottman, Gordon L.; Dr. Duncan Anderson (consultant editor) (2005). Japanese Army in World War II: The South Pacific and New Guinea, 1942–43. Oxford and New York: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-870-7. 
• Smith, Michael T. (2000). Bloody Ridge: The Battle That Saved Guadalcanal. New York: Pocket. ISBN 0-7434-6321-8. 
• Toland, John (2003 (1970)). The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York: The Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-6858-1. 

Web

• Anderson, Charles R. (1993). Guadalcanal. The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/72-8/72-8.htm. Retrieved July 9, 2006. 
• Bullard, Steven (translator) (2007). Japanese army operations in the South Pacific Area New Britain and Papua campaigns, 1942–43. Senshi Sōshō (translated excerpts). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. ISBN 978-0-9751904-8-7. http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/ajrp2.nsf/088031725e4569e4ca256f4f00126373/1fcb61d633972daaca257291000abf44?OpenDocument. 
• Hough, Frank O.; Ludwig, Verle E., and Shaw, Henry I., Jr. (Unknown date). "Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal". History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/I/index.html. Retrieved May 16, 2006. 
• Miller, John, Jr. (1959). "Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul". United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific. Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Department of the Army. pp. 418. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Rabaul/index.html. Retrieved October 20, 2006. 
• Miller, John Jr. (1995) [1949]. Guadalcanal: The First Offensive. United States Army Center of Military History. http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm. Retrieved July 4, 2006. 
• Parshall, Jon; Bob Hackett, Sander Kingsepp, & Allyn Nevitt. "Imperial Japanese Navy Page (Combinedfleet.com)". http://www.combinedfleet.com/kaigun.htm. Retrieved June 14, 2006. 
• Shaw, Henry I. (1992). "First Offensive: The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal". Marines in World War II Commemorative Series. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-C-Guadalcanal/index.html. Retrieved July 25, 2006. 
• U.S. Navy. "Chapter XXV: Campaign in the Solomons". Building the Navy's Bases in World War II: History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps, 1940–1946. U.S. Department of the Navy, Bureau of Yards and Docks. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/Building_Bases/bases-25.html. Retrieved December 8, 2006. 
• Zimmerman, John L. (1949). "The Guadalcanal Campaign". Marines in World War II Historical Monograph. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Guadalcanal.html. Retrieved July 4, 2006. 

Further information

Books

• Braun, Saul M. (1969). The struggle for Guadalcanal (American battles and campaigns). Putnam. ISBN 1-59114-114-1. 
• Christ, James F. (2007). Battalion of the Damned: The 1st Marine Paratroopers at Gavutu and Bloody Ridge, 1942. Naval Institute Press. ASIN B0006C4F62. 
• Coggins, Jack (1972). The campaign for Guadalcanal;: A battle that made history. DoubleDay. ISBN 0-385-04354-6. 
• Crawford, John (1992). New Zealand's Pacific frontline: Guadalcanal-Solomon Islands Campaign, 1942–45. New Zealand Defence Force. ISBN 0-473-01537-4. 
• D'Albas, Andrieu (1965). Death of a Navy: Japanese Naval Action in World War II. Devin-Adair Pub. ISBN 0-8159-5302-X. 
• DeBlanc, Jefferson (2008). Guadalcanal Air War, The: Col. Jefferson DeBlanc's Story. Pelican. ISBN 978-1-58980-587-3. 
• Farrington, Arthur C. (1994). The Leatherneck Boys: A Pfc at the Battle for Guadalcanal. Sunflower University Press. ISBN 0-89745-180-5. 
• Feldt, Eric Augustus (1946 (original text), 1991 (this edition)). The Coastwatchers. Victoria, Australia: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-014926-0. 
• Hersey, John (2002 (Paperback edition)). Into the Valley: Marines at Guadalcanal. Bison Books. ISBN 0-8032-7328-2. 
• Hornfischer, James D. (2011). Neptune's Inferno: The U.S. Navy at Guadalcanal. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-80670-0. 
• Hoyt, Edwin P. (1982). Guadalcanal. Military Heritage Press. ISBN 0-88029-184-2. 
• Hubler, Richard G.; Dechant, John A (1944). Flying Leathernecks – The Complete Record of Marine Corps Aviation in Action 1941–1944.. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc. 
• Leckie, Robert (2001 (reissue)). Helmet for my Pillow. ibooks, Inc.. ISBN 1-59687-092-3. 
• Leckie, Robert (1999). Challenge For The Pacific: the Bloody Six-month Battle Of Guadalcanal. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80911-7. 
• Lord, Walter (1977 (Reissue 2006)). Lonely Vigil; Coastwatchers of the Solomons. New York: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-466-3. 
• Lundstrom, John B. (2006). Black Shoe Carrier Admiral: Frank Jack Fletcher at Coral Seas, Midway & Guadalcanal. Annapolis, Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-475-2. 
• Marion, Ore J.; Thomas Cuddihy and Edward Cuddihy (2004). On the Canal: The Marines of L-3-5 on Guadalcanal, 1942. Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-3149-9. 
• Merillat, Herbert Christian (1982). Guadalcanal Remembered. University Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-1290-0. 
• Merillat, Herbert L. (1944). The Island: A History of the First Marine Division on Guadalcanal, August 7 – December 9, 1942. Houghton Mifflin Company. ASIN B0007DORUE. 
• Miller Jr., John (1995 (reissue of 1949)). Guadalcanal: The First Offensive. United States Army in World War II. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 5-3. http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm. 
• Mueller, Joseph (1992). Guadalcanal 1942: The Marines Strike Back. Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-253-6. 
• Parkin, Robert Sinclair (1995). Blood on the Sea: American Destroyers Lost in World War II. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81069-7. 
• Poor, Henry Varnum; Henry A. Mustin & Colin G. Jameson (1994). The Battles of Cape Esperance, 11 October 1942 and Santa Cruz Islands, October 26, 1942 (Combat Narratives. Solomon Islands Campaign, 4–5). Naval Historical Center. ISBN 0-945274-21-1. 
• Radike, Floyd W. (2003). Across the Dark Islands: The War in the Pacific. New York: Presidio Press. ISBN 0-89141-774-5. 
• Richter, Don (1992). Where the Sun Stood Still: The Untold Story of Sir Jacob Vouza and the Guadalcanal Campaign. Toucan. ISBN 0-9611696-3-X. 
• Rose, Lisle Abbott (2002). The Ship that Held the Line: The USS Hornet and the First Year of the Pacific War. Bluejacket Books. ISBN 1-55750-008-8. 
• Rottman, Gordon L.; Dr. Duncan Anderson (consultant editor) (2004). U.S. Marine Corps Pacific Theater of Operations 1941–43. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-518-X. 
• Smith, George W. (2003). The Do-or-Die Men: The 1st Marine Raider Battalion at Guadalcanal. Pocket. ISBN 0-7434-7005-2. 
• Stafford, Edward P.; Paul Stillwell (Introduction) (2002 (reissue)). The Big E: The Story of the USS Enterprise. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-998-0. 
• Tregaskis, Richard (1943). Guadalcanal Diary. Random House. ISBN 0-679-64023-1. 
• Twining, Merrill B. (1996). No Bended Knee: The Battle for Guadalcanal. Novato, California, USA: Presidio Press. ISBN 0-89141-826-1. 
• Walker, Charles H. (2004). Combat Officer: A Memoir of War in the South Pacific. New York: Presidio Press. ISBN 0-345-46385-4. 
• Werstein, Irving (1963). Guadalcanal. Crowell. ASIN B0007E0AQI. 

Web

• Australian War Memorial (Undated). "Secondary Bibliography by Author" (bibliography of Japanese-language sources). Australia-Japan Research Project. http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/ajrp2.nsf/Web-DocSecondary/flat?OpenDocument. Retrieved November 6, 2008. 
• Burbeck, James (2008). "The Guadalcanal Campaign". Flash animated combat map series at The War Times Journal. http://www.wtj.com/articles/guadalcanal/. 
• Cagney, James. "An Animated Map History of the Battle for Guadalcanal". HistoryAnimated.com. http://www.historyanimated.com/Guadalcanal.html. Retrieved September 4, 2008. 
• Craven, Wesley Frank; James Lea Cate. "Vol. IV, The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944". The Army Air Forces in World War II. U.S. Office of Air Force History. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html. Retrieved October 20, 2006. 
• Dillard, Nancy R. (May 20, 1997). "Operational Leadership: A Case Study of Two Extremes during Operation Watchtower" (Academic report). Joint Military Operations Department, Naval War College. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA325157&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf. Retrieved August 4, 2009. 
• Dyer, George Carroll. "The Amphibians Came to Conquer: The Story of Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner". United States Government Printing Office. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/ACTC/index.html. Retrieved October 20, 2006. 
• Emberton, Keith D. (May 1, 1996). "Operational Leadership Once Beyond the Culminating Point: Perspectives on Calculated Tactical Risk to Achieve Operational Success" (Academic report). Joint Military Operations Department, Naval War College. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA307601&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf. Retrieved August 4, 2009. 
• Garrett, James R.. "James R. "Rube" Garrett A Marine Diary: My Experiences on Guadalcanal". An Eyewitness Account of the Battle of Guadalcanal. http://www.nettally.com/~jrube/index2.html. 
• Gillespie, Oliver A. (1952). "The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939–1945; The Battle for the Solomons (Chapter 7)". New Zealand Electronic Text Center. http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Paci-_N84545.html. Retrieved July 11, 2006. 
• Hoffman, Jon T. (1995). "From Makin to Bougainville: Marine Raiders in the Pacific War" (brochure). World War II Commemorative Series. Marine Corps Historical Center. http://www.nps.gov/archive/wapa/indepth/extContent/usmc/pcn-190-003130-00/index.htm. Retrieved August 29, 2006. 
• Hoffman, Jon T.. "Silk Chutes and Hard Fighting: U.S. Marine Corps Parachute Units in World War II". Commemorative series. Marine Corps History and Museums Division. pp. 1. http://www.nps.gov/archive/wapa/indepth/extContent/usmc/pcn-190-003147-00/index.htm. Retrieved December 26, 2006. 
• Mersky, Peter B. (1993). "Time of the Aces: Marine Pilots in the Solomons, 1942–1944". Marines in World War II Commemorative Series. History and Museums Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-C-Aces/index.html. Retrieved October 20, 2006. 
• Newell, Clayton R. (2003). "Central Pacific". The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/72-4/72-4.htm. Retrieved August 6, 2008. 
• Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area, Volume II – Part I. United States Army Center of Military History. http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v2%20p1/macarthurv2.htm. Retrieved December 8, 2006.  – Translation of the official record by the Japanese Demobilization Bureaux detailing the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy's participation in the Southwest Pacific area of the Pacific War.
• U.S. Army Air Forces (1992 (Reissue)). "Pacific Counterblow: The 11th Bombardment Group and the 67th Fighter Squadron in the Battle for Guadalcanal". Wings at War. Office of Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/WW/index.html. Retrieved December 8, 2006. 

Audio/visual

• Adams, M. Clay (Director) (1952). Victory at Sea- Episode 6: Guadalcanal (Video documentary). National Broadcasting Company (NBC) Film. http://www.archive.org/details/VAS_06_Guadalcanal.  – One episode from a 26-episode series about naval combat during World War II.
• Malick, Terrence (Director) (1998). The Thin Red Line (Feature-length film). 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.  – Film adaptation of James Jones' fictional, dramatic novel of the same title set on Guadalcanal.
• Marton, Andrew (Director) (1964). The Thin Red Line (Feature-length film). Allied Artists Pictures.  – Film adaptation of James Jones' fictional, dramatic novel of the same title set on Guadalcanal.
• Montgomery, Robert (Director) (1960). The Gallant Hours (Feature-length film). United Artists.  – biographical film about Admiral Halsey during the Guadalcanal campaign
• Ray, Nicholas (Director) (1951). Flying Leathernecks (Feature-length film). RKO Radio Pictures.  – Fictional drama about U.S. Marine pilots involved in the Battle of Guadalcanal.
• Seiler, Lewis (Director) (1943). Guadalcanal Diary (Feature-length film). 20th Century Fox Film Corporation.  – Film adaptation of Tregaskis' book referenced in "Books" section above.
• Van Patten, Tim (Director) (2010). The Pacific (TV Miniseries). HBO, Seven Network, DreamWorks.  – "Part One" and "Part Two" deal with the Guadalcanal campaign.
• Video including historical footage of the Battle for Guadalcanal

Coordinates: 9°25′S 160°0′E / 9.417°S 160°E / -9.417; 160