Ernest King

Infobox Military Person
name= Ernest Joseph King
lived= birth date|1878|11|23 – Death date and age|1956|6|25|1878|11|23|
placeofbirth=Lorain, Ohio
placeofdeath=Kittery, Maine


caption=Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King.
nickname=Ernie; Rey
allegiance=flagicon|USA United States of America
serviceyears=1901–1950
rank=Fleet Admiral
branch= United States Navy
commands=United States Fleet
unit=
battles=Spanish-American War United States occupation of Veracruz World War I World War II
awards=Navy Cross Distinguished Service Medal Sampson Medal
relations=
laterwork=Naval Historical Foundation, President
Fleet Admiral Ernest Joseph King GCB (November 23, 1878 – June 25, 1956) was Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations (COMINCH-CNO) during World War II. As COMINCH, he directed the United States Navy's operations, planning, and administration and was a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He was the U.S. Navy's second most senior officer after Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, and the second admiral to be promoted to five star rank. As COMINCH, he served under Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and later under James Forrestal.

Early life

King was born in Lorain, Ohio on 23 November 1878, the son of James Clydesdale King and Elizabath Keam King. [Buell, "Master of Sea Power", p. 3] He attended the U.S. Naval Academy from 1897 until 1901, graduating fourth in his class. During his senior year at the Academy, he attained the rank of Cadet Lieutenant Commander, the highest possible cadet ranking at that time. [Morison, "The Battle of the Atlantic", p. 51]

urface Ships

While still at the Academy, he served on the USS "San Francisco" during the Spanish American War. After graduation, he served as a junior officer on the survey ship USS "Eagle", the battleships USS "Illinois", USS "Alabama" and USS "New Hampshire", and the cruiser USS "Cincinnati".Buell, "Master of Sea Power", 1980, pp. 10-12, 15-41]

While still at the Naval Academy, he met Martha Rankin ("Mattie") Egerton, a Baltimore socialite, whom he married in a ceremony at the Naval Academy Chapel on 10 October 1905.Buell, "Master of Sea Power", 1980, pp. 12, 17, 26.] They had six daughters, Claire, Elizabeth, Florence, Martha, Eleanor, and Mildred; and then a son, Ernest Joseph King, Jr. (Commander, USN Ret.)Buell, "Master of Sea Power", 1980, pp. 56, 452]

King returned to shore duty at Annapolis in 1912. He received his first command, the destroyer USS "Terry" in 1914, participating in the United States occupation of Veracruz. He then moved on to a more modern ship, USS "Cassin".

During World War I he served on the staff of Vice Admiral Henry T. Mayo, the Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet. As such, he was a frequent visitor to the Royal Navy and occasionally saw action as an observer on board British ships. It appears that his anglophobia developed during this period, [Gannon, "Operation Drumbeat", p. 168] although the reasons are unclear. He was awarded the Navy Cross "for distinguished service in the line of his profession as assistant chief of staff of the Atlantic Fleet".cite web |title = Full Text Citations For Award of The Navy Cross to Members of the US Navy World War I |url = http://www.homeofheroes.com/valor/1_Citations/01_wwi-nc/nc_02_WW1_Navy-ADM.html]

After the war, King, now a captain, became head of the Naval Postgraduate School. Along with Captains Dudley Wright Knox and William S. Pye, King prepared a report on naval training that recommended changes to naval training and career paths. Most of the report's recommendations were accepted and became policy.Buell, "Master of Sea Power", 1980, pp. 54-55.]

ubmarines

Before World War I he served in the surface fleet. From 1923 to 1925, he held several posts associated with submarines. As a junior captain , the best sea command he was able to secure in 1921 was the store ship USS "Bridge". The relatively new submarine force offered the prospect of advancement.Buell, "Master of Sea Power", 1980, p. 58.]

King attended a short training course at the Naval Submarine Base New London before taking command of a submarine division, flying his commodore's pennant from USS "S-20". He never earned his Submarine Warfare insignia, although he did propose and design the now-familiar dolphin insignia. In 1923, he took over command of Submarine Base itself.Buell, "Master of Sea Power", 1980, pp. 62-64.] During this period, he directed the salvage of the submarine S-51, earning the first of his three Distinguished Service Medals.

Aviation

In 1926, Rear Admiral William A. Moffett, Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, asked King if he would consider a transfer to naval aviation. King accepted the offer and took command of the aircraft tender USS "Wright" with additional duties as Senior Aide on the Staff of Commander Air Squadrons, Atlantic Fleet. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 187]

That year, the United States Congress passed a law (10 USC Sec. 5942) requiring that the commanders of all aircraft carriers, seaplane tenders, and aviation shore establishments be qualified naval aviators. King therefore reported to Naval Air Station Pensacola for aviator training in January 1927. He was the only captain in his class of twenty, which also included Commander Richmond K. Turner. King received his wings as Naval Aviator No. 3368 on 26 May 1927 and resumed command of "Wright". For a time, he frequently flew solo, flying down to Annapolis for weekend visits to his family, but his solo flying was cut short by a naval regulation that prohibited solo flights for aviators aged 50 or over. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", pp. 190-193] Between 1926 and 1936 he flew an average of 150 hours per annum. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 228]

King commanded "Wright" until 1929, except for the brief interlude commanding the salvage operations of USS "S-4". He then became Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics under Moffett. The two fell out over certain elements of Bureau policy, and he was replaced by Commander John Henry Towers and transferred to command of Naval Station Norfolk. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 211]

On 20 June 1930, King became captain of the carrier USS "Lexington" - then one of the largest aircraft carriers in the world - which he commanded for the next two years. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 214]

In 1932 he attended the Naval War College. In a war college thesis entitled "The Influence of National Policy on Strategy", King expounded on the theory that America's weakness was Representative democracy:cquote | Historically... it is traditional and habitual for us to be inadequately prepared. Thus is the combined result of a number factors, the character of which is only indicated: democracy, which tends to make everyone believe that he knows it all; the preponderance (inherent in democracy) of people whose real interest is in their own welfare as individuals; the glorification of our own victories in war and the corresponding ignorance of our defeats (and disgraces) and of their basic causes; the inability of the average individual (the man in the street) to understand the cause and effect not only in foreign but domestic affairs, as well as his lack of interest in such matters. Added to these elements is the manner in which our representative (republican) form of government has developed as to put a premium on mediocrity and to emphasise the defects of the electorate already mentioned. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", pp. 226-227]

Following the death of Admiral Moffet in the crash of the airship "Akron" on 4 April 1933, King became Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, and was promoted to Rear Admiral on 26 April 1933. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", pp. 240-242] As Bureau chief, King worked closely with the chief of the Bureau of Navigation, Rear Admiral William D. Leahy to increase the number of naval aviators. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 249]

At the conclusion of his term as Bureau Chief in 1936, King became Commander, Aircraft, Base Force at Naval Air Station North Island. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 266] He was promoted to Vice Admiral on 29 January 1938 on becoming Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force - at the time one of only three vice admiral billets in the US Navy. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 279]

King hoped to be appointed as either CNO or Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Fleet, but on 15 June 1939, he was posted to the General Board, an elephant's graveyard where senior officers sat out the time remaining before retirement. A series of extraordinary events would alter this outcome. [King and Whitehill, "A Naval Record", p. 295]

econd World War

His career was resurrected by one of his few friends in the Navy, CNO Admiral Harold "Betty" Stark, who realized that King's talent for command was being wasted on the General Board. [1] Stark appointed King as Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet in the fall of 1940, and he was promoted to Admiral in February 1941. On 30 December 1941 he became Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Fleet. On 18 March 1942, he was appointed Chief of Naval Operations, relieving Admiral Stark. He is the only person to hold this combined command. On 17 December 1944 he was promoted to the newly created rank of Fleet Admiral. He retired on December 15, 1945 but was recalled as an advisor to the Secretary of the Navy in 1950.

After retiring, King lived in Washington DC. He was active in his early post-retirement, but suffered a debilitating stroke in 1947, and subsequent ill-health ultimately forced him to stay in Naval Hospitals at Bethesda, Maryland, and at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine. He died of a heart-attack in Kittery on June 26, 1956 and was buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery at Annapolis, Maryland.

Analysis

King was highly intelligent and extremely capable, but controversial. Some consider him to have been one of the greatest admirals of the 20th century;Fact|date=February 2007 others, however, point out that he never commanded ships or fleets at sea in war time, and that his anglophobia led him to make decisions which cost many Allied lives.Cite book |first=Michael |last= Gannon |title=Operation Drumbeat |pages=pp. 388–389 & 414–415 |publisher=Harper |year=1990 |isbn=0-06-092088-2] He was considered rude and abrasive; as a result, King was loathed by many officers with whom he served.

He was... perhaps the most disliked Allied leader of World War II. Only British Field Marshal Montgomery may have had more enemies... King also loved parties and often drank to excess. Apparently, he reserved his charm for the wives of fellow naval officers. On the job, he "seemed always to be angry or annoyed."Cite book |first=John Ray |last=Skates |title=The Invasion of Japan: Alternative to the Bomb |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-87249-972-3]

There was a tongue-in-cheek remark about King, made by one of his daughters, carried about by Naval personnel at the time that "he is the most even-tempered person in the United States Navy. He is always in a rage." Roosevelt once described King as "... "a man who shaves with a blow torch".

King is famous for stating to a reporter, when the United States entered World War II: “When the shooting starts, they call for the sons-of-bitches”.Cite book |first=John |last=Lehman |title=On Seas of Glory: Heroic Men, Great Ships, and Epic Battles of the American Navy |publisher=Free Press |year=2002 |isbn=0684871777]

Response to Operation "Drumbeat"

At the start of US involvement in World War II, blackouts on the U.S. eastern seaboard were not in effect, and commercial ships were not travelling under convoy. King's critics attribute the delay to implement these measures to his anglophobia, as the convoys and seaboard blackouts were British proposals, and King was supposedly loath to have his much-beloved U.S. Navy adopt any ideas from the Royal Navy. He also refused, until March 1942, the loan of British convoy escorts when the USN had only a handful of suitable vessels. He was, however, aggressive in driving his destroyer captains to attack U-boats in defense of convoys and in planning counter-measures against German surface raiders, even before the formal declaration of war by Germany.

Instead of convoys, King had the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard perform regular anti-submarine patrols, but these patrols followed a regular schedule. U-boat commanders learned the schedule, and coordinated their attacks to these schedules. Leaving the lights on in coastal towns back-lit merchant ships to the U-Boats. As a result, there were disastrous shipping losses — two million tons lost in January and February 1942 alone, and urgent pressure applied from both sides of the Atlantic. However, King resisted the use of convoys because he was convinced that the Navy lacked sufficient escort vessels to make them effective. The formation of convoys with inadequate escort would also result in increased port-to-port time, giving the enemy concentrated groups of targets rather than single ships proceeding independently. Furthermore, blackouts were a politically-sensitive issue - coastal cities resisted, citing the loss of tourism revenue.

It was not until May 1942 that King marshalled resources — small cutters and private vessels that he had previously scorned — to establish a day-and-night interlocking convoy system running from Newport, Rhode Island, to Key West, Florida.Cite book |first=Lloyd J. |last=Graybar |title="Quarterdeck and Bridge: Two Centuries of American Naval Leaders" |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1996 |isbn=1-55750-096-7]

By August, 1942, the submarine threat to shipping in U.S. coastal waters had been contained. The U-boats' "second happy time" ended, with the loss of seven U-boats and a dramatic reduction in shipping losses. The same effect occurred when convoys were extended to the Caribbean. Despite the ultimate defeat of the U-boat, some of King's initial decisions in this theater could be viewed as flawed.Cite book |first=Samuel Eliot |last=Morison |title="History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. I: The Battle of the Atlantic: 1939–1943" |pages=pp. 135–148 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=1947 |isbn=0316583111]

In King's defense, noted naval historian Professor Robert W. Love has stated that "Operation "Drumbeat" (or "Paukenschlag") off the Atlantic Coast in early 1942 succeeded largely because the U.S. Navy was already committed to other tasks: transatlantic escort-of-convoy operations, defending troop transports, and maintaining powerful, forward-deployed Atlantic Fleet striking forces to prevent a breakout of heavy German surface forces. Navy leaders, especially Admiral King, were unwilling to risk troop shipping to provide escorts for coastal merchant shipping. Unscheduled, emergency deployments of Army units also created disruptions to navy plans, as did other occasional unexpected tasks. Contrary to the traditional historiography, neither Admiral King’s unproven yet widely alleged Anglophobia, an equally undocumented navy reluctance to accept British advice, nor a preference for another strategy caused the delay in the inauguration of costal escort-of-convoy operations … The delay was due to a shortage of escorts, and that resulted from understandably conflicting priorities, a state of affairs that dictated all Allied strategy until 1944." [Timothy J. Ryan and Jan M. Copes "To Die Gallantly – The Battle of the Atlantic", 1994 Westview Press, Chapter 7.]

Other decisions

Other decisions perceived as questionable were his resistance to employ long-range Liberators on Atlantic maritime patrols (thus allowing the U-boats a safe area in the middle of the Atlantic — the "Atlantic Gap"), the denial of adequate numbers of landing craft to the Allied invasion of Europe, and the reluctance to permit the Royal Navy's Pacific Fleet any role in the Pacific. In all of these instances, circumstances forced a re-evaluation or he was over-ruled. It has also been pointed out that King did not, in his post-war report to the Secretary of the Navy, accurately describe the slowness of the American response to the off-shore U-boat threat in early 1942. Gannon, "Operation Drumbeat", 1990, pp. 391 & 414–415.]

It should be noted, however, that the employment of long-range maritime patrol aircraft in the Atlantic was complicated by inter-service squabbling over command and control (the aircraft belonged to the Army Air Forces; the mission was the Navy's; Stimson and Arnold initially refused to release the aircraft.Fact|date=January 2008) Although King had certainly used the allocation of ships to the European Theater as leverage to get the necessary resources for his Pacific objectives, he provided (at General Marshall's request) an additional month's production of landing craft to support Operation Overlord. The level of sea lift for Overlord turned out to be more than adequate.

The employment of British and Empire forces in the Pacific was a political matter. The measure was forced on Churchill by the British Chiefs of Staff, not only to re-establish British presence in the region, but to mitigate any perception in the U.S. that the British were doing nothing to help defeat Japan. King was adamant that naval operations against Japan remain 100% American, and angrily resisted the idea of a British naval presence in the Pacific at the Quadrant Conference in late 1944, citing (among other things) the difficulty of supplying additional naval forces in the theater (for much the same reason, Hap Arnold resisted the offer of RAF units in the Pacific). In addition, King (along with Marshall) had continually resisted operations that would assist the British agenda in reclaiming or maintaining any part of her pre-war colonial holdings in the Pacific or the eastern Mediterranean. [1, 19] Roosevelt, however, overruled him and, despite King's reservations, the British Pacific Fleet accounted itself well against Japan in the last months of the war.

As a consequence of these, and other decisions, the United States Navy under King's command grew to be the dominant naval force in the world, with a superb fleet train, capable of operating for long periods away from its permanent bases.

General Hastings Ismay, chief of staff to Winston Churchill, described King as:

tough as nails and carried himself as stiffly as a poker. He was blunt and stand-offish, almost to the point of rudeness. At the start, he was intolerant and suspicious of all things British, especially the Royal Navy; but he was almost equally intolerant and suspicious of the American Army. War against Japan was the problem to which he had devoted the study of a lifetime, and he resented the idea of American resources being used for any other purpose than to destroy Japanese. He mistrusted Churchill's powers of advocacy, and was apprehensive that he would wheedle President Roosevelt into neglecting the war in the Pacific.

Despite British perceptions, King was a strong believer in the "Germany first" strategy. [1] However, his natural aggression did not permit him to leave resources idle in the Atlantic that could be utilized in the Pacific, especially when "it was doubtful when — if ever — the British would consent to a cross-Channel operation".Cite book |first=Samuel Eliot |last=Morison |title="History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. XI: Invasion of France & Germany: 1944–1945" |pages=pp. 13–14 |publisher= Little, Brown and Company |year=1957 |isbn=0316583111] King once complained that the Pacific deserved 30% of Allied resources but was getting only 15%. When, at the Casablanca Conference, he was accused by Field Marshall Sir Alan Brooke of favoring the Pacific war, the argument became heated. The combative General Joseph Stilwell wrote: "Brooke got nasty, and King got good and sore. King almost climbed over the table at Brooke. God, he was mad. I wished he had socked him."Cite book |first=Forrest C. |last= Pogue |title="George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory 1943–1945" |pages=p. 305 |publisher=Viking Adult |year=1973 |isbn=0670336947]

Following Japan's defeat at the Battle of Midway, King advocated (with Roosevelt's tacit consent) the invasion of Guadalcanal. When General Marshall resisted this line of action (as well as who would command the operation), King stated that the Navy (and the Marines) would then carry out the operation by themselves, and instructed Admiral Nimitz to proceed with the preliminary planning. [1] King eventually won the argument, and the invasion went ahead with the backing of the Joint Chiefs. It was ultimately successful, and was the first time the Japanese lost ground during the War. For his attention to the Pacific Theatre he is highly regarded by some Australian war historians.cite web
accessdate=2007-12-30
url=http://www.users.bigpond.com/pacificwar/GermanyFirst/GermanyFirst.html
title=Despite Pearl Harbor, America adopts a 'Germany First' strategy
work=America Fights Back
author=Bowen, James
series=The Pacific War from Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal
publisher=Pacific War Historical Society]

In spite of (or perhaps partly because of) the fact that the two men did not get along, [ cite web |accessdate=2007-12-30
url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWkingE.htm
title=Ernest King
author=Simkin, John
publisher=Spartacus Educational] the combined influence of King and General Douglas MacArthur increased the allocation of resources to the Pacific War.cite book
accessdate=2007-12-30
url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/BigL/BigL-6.html
chapter=Chapter 6: Joint Logistics in the Pacific Theater
author=Gray, Anthony W., Jr.
title=The Big 'L' — American Logistics in World War II
editor=Alan Gropman
year=1997
publisher=National Defense University Press
location=Washington, D.C.]

Other controversies involving Admiral Ernest King include:
*The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary aka "Corsair Fleet".cite web|accessdate=2008-09-11
url=http://www.uscg.mil/history/articles/h_beachpatrol.asp
title=The Beach Patrol and Corsair Fleet
author=Noble, Dennis L
publisher=U.S. Coast Guard]
*Lt. Commander Joseph Rochefort and the Battle of Midway
*Captain Charles Butler McVay III court-martial.cite web|accessdate=2007-12-30
url=http://www.ussindianapolis.org/mcvay.htm
title=Captain McVay
publisher=USS Indianapolis.org]

Dates of rank

*Midshipman - June 1901

King was also the recipient of several foreign awards and decorations (shown in order of acceptance and if more than one award for a country, placed in order of precedence):
* ) 1945
* ) 1944
* Commander of the Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa (Panama) 1929
* 1933
* Knight of the Grand Cross of the Military Order of Italy 1948
* Order of Merit, Grande Official (Brazil) 1943
* Naval Order of Merit (Cuba) 1943
* Estrella Abdon Calderon (Ecuador) 1943
* ) 1945
* Order of Pao-Ting (China) 1945
* ) 1946
* (1948)
* Croix de Guerre (Belgium) (1948)
* ) 1948

Namesakes

The guided missile destroyer USS "King" was named in his honor. A major high school in his hometown of Lorain, Ohio also bears his name — Admiral King High School. Also named after him is the Department of Defense high school on Sasebo Naval Base, in Japan. In 1956, schools located on the U.S. Naval Bases and Air Stations were given names of U.S. heroes of the past. The Sasebo Dependents School was named after the famed World War II Hero, Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King. Thus, the official name of Ernest J. King School, Navy 3912, FPO San Francisco, California became effective School Year 1956/57. Recognizing King's great personal and professional interest in maritime history, the Secretary of the Navy named in his honor an academic chair at the Naval War College to be held with the title of the Ernest J. King Professor of Maritime History.

Notes

References

*Cite book |first=Thomas B. |last=Buell| title="Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King" |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1995 |location = Annapolis |isbn=1557500924
*cite book |last = Gannon |first = Michael |title = Operation Drumbeat |publisher = Harper Collins |year = 1991 |location = New York |isbn = ISBN 0-06-092088-2
*cite book |last = King |first = Ernest |last2 = Whitehill |first2 = Walter Muir |title = Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record |publisher = W. W. Norton & Company |year = 1952 |location = New York City |isbn = 0785813020
*cite book |last = Morison |first = Samuel Eliot |series= History of United States Naval Operations in World War II |title = Volume I. The Battle of the Atlantic, September 1939-May 1943 |publisher = Little, Brown and Company |year = 1947 |location = Boston |isbn = 0785813020

External links

*cite web|accessdate=2007-12-30
url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-3.htm
title=Fleet Admiral Ernest Joseph King
date=1 June 1996
publisher=Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy Ernest King's biography on official U.S Department of the Navy website.
*cite journal|accessdate=2007-12-30
url=http://www.historyarticles.com/new_page_10.htm
title=FDR's Undeclared War
month=February | year=2004
author=O'Connor, Jerome
journal=Naval History magazine
publisher=U.S. Naval Institute An article documenting the "sons of bitches" quote and other relevant facts.
* [http://www.rnpatrolservice.org.uk/index.html-- 24 Armed Trawlers of the RNPS 'Churchill's Pirate's' were sent to protect the US coast in 1942.]