Onion

"Onions" redirects here. For the name and those bearing it, see Onions (surname).

This article is about the plants. For other uses, see Onion (disambiguation).

Onion
Onions
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
clade:	Angiosperms
clade:	Monocots
Order:	Asparagales
Family:	Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily:	Allioideae
Genus:	Allium
Species:	A. cepa
Binomial name
Allium cepa L.

Onion

Flower head of an onion (A. cepa)

The onion (Allium cepa), also known as the bulb onion,^[1] common onion^[2] and garden onion,^{[citation needed]} is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium.^[3] The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. ×proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense).^[2] The name "wild onion" is applied to a number of Allium species.

The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the 'common onion group' (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as 'onions'. The 'Aggregatum group' of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions.^[4]

Allium cepa is known only in cultivation,^[5] but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include Allium vavilovii (Popov & Vved.) and Allium asarense (R.M. Fritsch & Matin) from Iran.^[6] However, Zohary and Hopf warn that "there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop."^[7]

Uses

Culinary uses

Onions pickled in vinegar are eaten as a snack. These are often served as a side serving in fish and chip shops throughout the United Kingdom and Australia, often served with cheese in the United Kingdom, and are referred to simply as "pickled onions" in Eastern Europe.

Onion types and products

Common onions are normally available in three colors: yellow, red, and white. Yellow onions are full-flavored and are a reliable standby for cooking almost anything. Yellow onions turn a rich, dark brown when cooked and give French onion soup its tangy sweet flavor. The red onion is a good choice for fresh uses or in grilling and char-broiling. White onions are the traditional onion used in classic Mexican cuisine. They have a golden color and sweet flavor when sautéed.

While the large mature onion bulb is the onion most often eaten, onions can be eaten at immature stages. Young plants may be harvested before bulbing occurs and used whole as scallions.^[8] When an onion is harvested after bulbing has begun but the onion is not yet mature, the plants are sometimes referred to as summer onions.^[9]

Additionally, onions may be bred and grown to mature at smaller sizes. Depending on the mature size and the purpose for which the onion is used, these may be referred to as pearl, boiler, or pickler onions.^[9] (However, true pearl onions are a different species.) Pearl and boiler onions may be cooked as a vegetable rather than an ingredient. Pickler onions are, unsurprisingly, often pickled.

Onion seed may be "sprouted", and the resulting sprouts used in salads, sandwiches, and other dishes. (See sprouting.)

Onions are available in fresh, frozen, canned, caramelized, pickled, powdered, chopped, and dehydrated forms.

Onion powder is a spice used for seasoning in cooking. It is made from finely ground, dehydrated onions, mainly the pungent varieties of bulb onions, which causes the powder to have a very strong odor. Onion powder comes in a few varieties: white, yellow, red and toasted.

Non-culinary uses

Onions have particularly large cells that are readily observed at low magnification; consequently, onion tissue is frequently used in science education for demonstrating microscope usage.^[10]

Onion skins have been used for dye. ^[11]

Historical uses

Bulbs from the onion family are thought to have been used as a food source for millennia. In Bronze Age settlements, traces of onion remains were found alongside fig and date stones dating back to 5000 BC.^[12]

However, it is not clear if these were cultivated onions. Archaeological and literary evidence such as the Book of Numbers 11:5 suggests cultivation probably took place around two thousand years later in ancient Egypt, at the same time that leeks and garlic were cultivated. Workers who built the Egyptian pyramids may have been fed radishes and onions.^[12]

The onion is easily propagated, transported and stored. The ancient Egyptians worshipped it,^[13] believing its spherical shape and concentric rings symbolized eternal life. Onions were even used in Egyptian burials, as evidenced by onion traces being found in the eye sockets of Ramesses IV.

In ancient Greece, athletes ate large quantities of onion because it was believed to lighten the balance of blood. Roman gladiators were rubbed down with onion to firm up their muscles. In the Middle Ages, onions were such an important food that people would pay their rent with onions, and even give them as gifts.^[13] Doctors were known to prescribe onions to facilitate bowel movements and erections, and also to relieve headaches, coughs, snakebite and hair loss.

The cultivated onion was introduced to North America by Christopher Columbus on his 1492 expedition to Hispaniola; however, they found that strains of wild onions already grew throughout North America. Native American Indians used wild onions in a variety of ways, eating them raw or cooked, as a seasoning or as a vegetable. Such onions were also used in syrups, as poultices, as an ingredient in dyes and even as toys. According to diaries of colonists, bulb onions were planted as soon as the Pilgrim fathers could clear the land in 1648.^[13]

Onions were also prescribed by doctors in the early 16th century to help with infertility in women, and even dogs, cats and cattle and many other household pets. However, recent evidence has shown that dogs, cats, and other animals should not be given onions in any form, due to toxicity during digestion.^[14][15][16]

Medicinal properties and health effects of onions

Raw Onions

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	166 kJ (40 kcal)
Carbohydrates	9.34 g
- Sugars	4.24 g
- Dietary fiber	1.7 g
Fat	0.1 g
- saturated	0.042 g
- monounsaturated	0.013 g
- polyunsaturated	0.017 g
Protein	1.1 g
Water	89.11 g
Vitamin A equiv.	0 μg (0%)
Thiamine (vit. B1)	0.046 mg (4%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)	0.027 mg (2%)
Niacin (vit. B3)	0.116 mg (1%)
Vitamin B6	0.12 mg (9%)
Folate (vit. B9)	19 μg (5%)
Vitamin B12	0 μg (0%)
Vitamin C	7.4 mg (9%)
Vitamin E	0.02 mg (0%)
Vitamin K	0.4 μg (0%)
Calcium	23 mg (2%)
Iron	0.21 mg (2%)
Magnesium	0.129 mg (0%)
Phosphorus	29 mg (4%)
Potassium	146 mg (3%)
Sodium	4 mg (0%)
Zinc	0.17 mg (2%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Wide-ranging claims have been made for the effectiveness of onions against conditions ranging from the common cold to heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and other diseases.^[17] They contain chemical compounds believed to have anti-inflammatory, anticholesterol, anticancer, and antioxidant properties, such as quercetin. Preliminary studies have shown increased consumption of onions reduces the risk of head and neck cancers.^[18]

Among all varieties, Asian white onions have the most eye irritating chemical reaction. Regular use of white onion, if eaten raw, is claimed to be good due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.^{[citation needed]}

In India some sects do not eat onions as they believe them to be an aphrodisiac;^[19] various schools of Buddhism also advise against eating onions and other vegetables of the Allium family. ^[20]

In many parts of the undeveloped world, onions are used to heal blisters and boils. A traditional Maltese remedy for sea urchin wounds is to tie half a baked onion to the afflicted area overnight. A similar traditional cure is known in Bulgaria. Half-baked onion with sugar is placed over the finger and fingernail in case of inflammation.

An application of raw onion is also said to be helpful in reducing swelling from bee stings. In the United States, products that contain onion extract are used in the treatment of topical scars; some studies have found their action to be ineffective,^[21][22][23] while others found that they may act as an anti-inflammatory or bacteriostatic^[24] and can improve collagen organization in rabbits.^[25]

Onions may be beneficial for women,^[26] who are at increased risk for osteoporosis as they go through menopause, by destroying osteoclasts so they do not break down bone.

An American chemist has stated^[27] the pleiomeric chemicals in onions have the potential to alleviate or prevent sore throat. Onion in combination with jaggery has been widely used as a traditional household remedy for sore throat in India.

Shallots have the most phenols, six times the amount found in Vidalia onion, the variety with the lowest phenolic content. Shallots also have the most antioxidant activity, followed by Western Yellow, pungent yellow (New York Bold),^[28] Northern Red, Mexico, Empire Sweet, Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia. Western Yellow onions have the most flavonoids, eleven times the amount found in Western White, the variety with the lowest flavonoid content.

For all varieties of onions, the more phenols and flavonoids they contain, the more reputed antioxidant and anticancer activity they provide. When tested against liver and colon cancer cells in laboratory studies, 'Western Yellow', pungent yellow (New York Bold)^[28] and shallots were most effective in inhibiting their growth. The milder-tasting cultivars (i.e., 'Western White,' 'Peruvian Sweet,' 'Empire Sweet,' 'Mexico,' 'Texas 1015,' 'Imperial Valley Sweet' and 'Vidalia') showed little cancer-fighting ability.^[28]

Shallots and ten other onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties commonly available in the United States were evaluated: Western Yellow, Northern Red, pungent yellow (New York Bold), Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Empire Sweet, Mexico, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia. In general, the most pungent onions delivered many times the effects of their milder cousins.^[28]

The 3-mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol in onion was found to inhibit peroxynitrite-induced mechanisms in vitro.^[29]

While members of the onion family appear to have medicinal properties for humans, they can be deadly for dogs and cats.^[14][15][16]

Eye irritation

When an onion is cut, certain compounds are released causing the lachrymal glands in the eyes to become irritated, releasing tears.

As onions are sliced or eaten, cells are broken, allowing enzymes called alliinases to break down amino acid sulphoxides and generate sulphenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, formed when onions are cut, is rapidly rearranged by a second enzyme, called the lachrymatory factor synthase or LFS, giving syn-propanethial-S-oxide, a volatile gas known as the onion lachrymatory factor or LF.^[30] The LF gas diffuses through the air and eventually reaches the eye, where it activates sensory neurons, creating a stinging sensation. Tear glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.^[31] Chemicals that exhibit such an effect on the eyes are known as lachrymatory agents.

Supplying ample water to the reaction while peeling onions prevents the gas from reaching the eyes. Eye irritation can, therefore, be avoided by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water.^[31] Another way to reduce irritation is by chilling, or by not cutting off the root of the onion (or by doing it last), as the root of the onion has a higher concentration of enzymes.^[32] Using a sharp blade to chop onions will limit the cell damage and the release of enzymes that drive the irritation response. Chilling or freezing onions prevents the enzymes from activating, limiting the amount of gas generated.

Eye irritation can also be avoided by having a fan blow the gas away from the eyes, or by wearing goggles or any eye protection that creates a seal around the eye. Contact lens wearers may also experience less immediate irritation as a result of the slight protection afforded by the lenses themselves.

The amount of sulfenic acids and LF released and the irritation effect differs among Allium species. On January 31, 2008, the New Zealand Crop and Food institute created a strain of "no tears" onions by using gene-silencing biotechnology to prevent synthesis by the onions of the lachrymatory factor synthase enzyme.^[33]

Propagation

Onion and shallot output in 2005

Onion growing shoots

Onions may be grown from seed or, more commonly today, from sets started from seed the previous year. Onion sets are produced by sowing seed very thickly one year, resulting in stunted plants that produce very small bulbs. These bulbs are very easy to set out and grow into mature bulbs the following year, but they have the reputation of producing a less durable bulb than onions grown directly from seed and thinned.

Seed-bearing onions are day-length sensitive; their bulbs begin growing only after the number of daylight hours has surpassed some minimal quantity. Most traditional European onions are what is referred to as "long-day" onions, producing bulbs only after 15+ hours of daylight occur. Southern European and North African varieties are often known as "intermediate day" types, requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation. Finally, "short-day" onions, which have been developed in more recent times, are planted in mild-winter areas in the fall and form bulbs in the early spring, and require only 9–10 hours of sunlight to stimulate bulb formation.

Either planting method may be used to produce spring onions or green onions, which are the leaves of immature plants. Green onion is a name also used to refer to another species, Allium fistulosum, the Welsh onion, which does not form bulbs.

The tree onion produces bulblets instead of flowers and seeds, which can be planted directly in the ground.

I'itoi onion (Allium cepa) is a prolific multiplier onion cultivated near Baboquiviri, Arizona. They have a shallot-like flavor. They are easy to grow and ideal for hot, dry climates. To grow them, separate bulbs, and plant in the fall 1 inch below surface and 12 inches apart. Bulbs will multiply into clumps and can be harvested throughout the cooler months. Tops will die back in the heat of summer and may return with monsoon rains; bulbs can remain in the ground or be harvested and stored in a cool dry place for planting in the fall. The plants rarely flower; propagation is by division.

Varieties

• 

  Brown and White onion (common onion group)

• 

  Yellow onions (common onion group)

• 

  Red onions (common onion group)

• 

  A. ×proliferum, tree onion

Common onion group (var. cepa)

Most of the diversity within A. cepa occurs within this group, the most economically important Allium crop. Plants within this group form large single bulbs, and are grown from seed or seed-grown sets. The majority of cultivars grown for dry bulbs, salad onions, and pickling onions belong to this group.^[4] The range of diversity found among these cultivars includes variation in photoperiod (length of day that triggers bulbing), storage life, flavour, and skin colour.^[34] Common onions range from the pungent varieties used for dried soups and onion powder to the mild and hearty sweet onions, such as the Vidalia from Georgia, USA, or Walla Walla from Washington that can be sliced and eaten on a sandwich instead of meat.

European onions

A number of onions have Protected Geographical Status in Europe, these include:

• Cipolla Rossa di Tropea, a red onion from Calabria, Italy (PGI)
• Cipollotto Nocerino, a spring/salad onion-sized Allium Ccepa from Campania, Italy (PDO)
• Oignon doux des Cévennes, a sweet onion from the south east of France (PDO)

Aggregatum group (var. aggregatum)

This group contains shallots and potato onions, also referred to as multiplier onions. The bulbs are smaller than those of common onions, and a single plant forms an aggregate cluster of several bulbs. They are propagated almost exclusively from daughter bulbs, although reproduction from seed is possible. Shallots are the most important subgroup within this group and comprise the only cultivars cultivated commercially. They form aggregate clusters of small, narrowly ovoid to pear-shaped bulbs. Potato onions differ from shallots in forming larger bulbs with fewer bulbs per cluster, and having a more flattened (onion-like) shape. However, intermediate forms exist.^[4]

Species that may be confused with A. cepa

Scallions or salad onions may be grown from the Welsh onion (A. fistulosum) as well as from A. cepa. Young plants of A. fistulosum and A. cepa look very similar, but may be distinguished by their leaves, which are circular in cross-section in A. fistulosum rather than flattened on one side.^[35]

Hybrids with A. cepa parentage

A number of hybrids are cultivated that have A. cepa parentage, such as the tree onion or Egyptian onion (A. ×proliferum), Wakegi onion (A. ×wakegi), and the triploid onion (A. ×cornutum).

Diploid hybrids

The tree onion or Egyptian onion produces bulblets in the flower head instead of flowers, and is now known to be a hybrid of A. cepa × A. fistulosum. It has previously been treated as a variety of A. cepa, for example A. cepa var. proliferum, A. cepa var. bulbiferum, and A. cepa var. viviparum.^[36]

The Wakegi onion is also known to be a hybrid between A. cepa and A. fistulosum, with the A. cepa parent believed to be from the 'aggregatum' group of cultivars.^[37] It has been grown for centuries in Japan and China for use as a salad onion.^[38]

Under the rules of botanical nomenclature, both the Egyptian onion and Wakegi onion should be combined into one hybridogenic species, having the same parent species. Where this is followed, the Egyptian onion is named A. ×proliferum 'Eurasian group' and the Wakegi onion is named A. ×proliferum 'East Asian group'.^[2]

Triploid onions

The triploid onion is a hybrid species with three sets of chromosomes, two sets from A. cepa and the third set from an unknown parent.^[37] Various clones of the triploid onion are grown locally in different regions, such as 'Ljutika' in Croatia, and 'Pran', 'Poonch' and 'Srinagar' in the India-Kashmir region. 'Pran' is grown extensively in the Northern Indian provinces of Jammu and Kashmir. There are very small genetic differences between 'Pran' and the Croatian clone 'Ljutika', implying a monophyletic origin for this species.^[39]

Some authors have used the name A. cepa var. viviparum (Metzg.) Alef. for the triploid onion, but this name has also been applied to the Egyptian onion. The only name unambiguously connected with the triploid onion is A. ×cornutum.

Storage

Green onion and leeks are optimally stored refrigerated.^[40] Cooking onions and sweet onions, on the other hand, can be stored at room temperature, optimally in a single layer, in mesh bag in a dry, cool, dark, well ventilated location.^[40] In this environment, cooking onions have a shelf life of 3 to 4 weeks, and sweet onions 1 to 2 weeks.^[40] Cooking onions will absorb odours from apples and pears.^[40] Also, they draw moisture from vegetables they are stored with which may cause them to decay.^[40] Sweet onions have a greater water and sugar content than cooking onions. This makes them sweeter and milder tasting, but also reduces their shelf life.^[40] Sweet onions can also be stored refrigerated; they have a shelf life of approximately 1 month, optimally uncovered.^[40] Irrespective of type, any cut pieces of onion are optimally tightly wrapped, stored away from other produce, and used within 2 to 3 days.^[40]

Production trends

Onion field during harvest, Vale, Oregon (USA).

Top Ten Onion Producers — 2009 (metric tons)
China	21,046,969
India	13,900,000
United States	3,400,560
Turkey	1,849,580
Egypt	1,800,000
Pakistan	1,704,100
Russia	1,601,550
Iran	1,512,150
Brazil	1,511,850
Netherlands	1,269,000
World Total	73,231,830
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[41]

The Onion Futures Act, passed in 1958, bans the trading of futures contracts on onions in the United States, after farmers complained about alleged market manipulation by Sam Seigel and Vincent Kosuga at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. It provides economists with a unique case study in the effects of futures trading on agricultural prices. It remains in effect as of 2011^[update].

Pictures

• 

  Red onion

• 

  A sack of Red onions

• 

  Onion fields near Elba, New York

• 

  Onions cooked in a frying pan

• 

  Onion weighing and packing in The Netherlands

• 

  Cut onion

• 

  Spring onions or scallions

• 

  Onion field in Andong, Korea

See also

• Allicin
• Desquamation
• Herbalism
• List of Allium species
• Onion Johnny
• Pyruvate scale
• Welsh onion

Notes

1. ^ Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). "Allium cepa information from NPGS/GRIN". USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2244. Retrieved 22 April 2011. 
2. ^ ^{a b c} Fritsch, R.M.; N. Friesen (2002). "Chapter 1: Evolution, Domestication, and Taxonomy". In H.D. Rabinowitch and L. Currah. Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0-85199-510-1. 
3. ^ Brewster, James L. (1994). Onions and other vegetable alliums (1st ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 16. ISBN 0-85198-753-2. 
4. ^ ^{a b c} Fritsch, R.M.; N. Friesen (2002). "Chapter 1: Evolution, Domestication, and Taxonomy". In H.D. Rabinowitch and L. Currah. Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-85199-510-1. 
5. ^ "Allium cepa Linnaeus". Flora of North America. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200027457. 
6. ^ Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen; Backhuys, Leiden; CTA, Wageningen.
7. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria (2000). Domestication of plants in the Old World (Third ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 198. ISBN 0198503571. 
8. ^ Thompson, Sylvia (1995). The Kitchen Garden. Bantam Books. p. 142 
9. ^ ^{a b} Thompson, Sylvia (1995). The Kitchen Garden. Bantam Books. p. 143 
10. ^ "Genetics Teaching Vignettes: Elementary School". 2004-06-15. http://genetics-education-partnership.mbt.washington.edu/class/elem.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-28. 
11. ^ "United States Patent Office: Method of coloring eggs or the like". 1925-6-19. http://www.google.com.au/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1538367&id=o2xDAAAAEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=onion+skin+dye&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=onion%20skin%20dye&f=false. Retrieved 2011-09-17. 
12. ^ ^{a b} "Onions Allium cepa". selfsufficientish.com. http://www.selfsufficientish.com/onion.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-02. 
13. ^ ^{a b c} "About Onions: History". http://www.onions-usa.org/about/history.php. Retrieved 2008-01-30. 
14. ^ ^{a b} R.B. Cope, BSc, BVSc, PhD (August 2005). "Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats". Veterinary Medicine 100 (8): 562–566. ISSN 87507943. http://www2.aspca.org/site/DocServer/vetm0805_562-566.pdf. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 
15. ^ ^{a b} B.S. Salgado; Monteiro, LN; Rocha, NS (2011). "Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats". Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases 17 (1): 4–11. doi:10.1590/S1678-91992011000100002. ISSN 16789199. 
16. ^ ^{a b} Sophia Yin, DVM, MS. "Onions: the secret killer?". http://drsophiayin.com/blog/entry/onions_the_secret_killer. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 
17. ^ "World's Healthiest Foods". Whfoods.com. 2006-06-06. http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=45. Retrieved 2009-09-04. 
18. ^ "Onion and garlic use and human cancer. (The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition)". Ajcn.org. 2006-11-01. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/84/5/1027. Retrieved 2009-09-04. 
19. ^ Simoons, Frederick (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 568. ISBN 0299159043. http://books.google.com/?id=KEUAbrBoeBAC&pg=PR11&lpg=PR11&dq=Plants+of+life,+plants+of+death+++bibliography. Retrieved 2009-07-13. 
20. ^ "The Buddhist Diet". SFSU. http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/BuddhismAnimalsVegetarian/Buddhist%20Diet.htm. 
21. ^ "Product Review: Mederma for Scars". Dermatology.about.com. http://dermatology.about.com/od/skincareproducts/gr/MedermaReview.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-04. 
22. ^ "Topical scar modification: Hype or help?. (Aesthetic Surgery Journal)". Linkinghub.elsevier.com. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090820X05001093. Retrieved 2009-09-04. 
23. ^ Zurada JM, Kriegel D, Davis IC (2006). "Topical treatments for hypertrophic scars". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 55 (6): 1024–1031. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.03.022. PMID 17097399. 
24. ^ Augusti, K. (1996). "Therapeutic values of onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.)". Indian J Exp Biol 34 (7): 634–640. PMID 8979497. 
25. ^ Saulis, Alexandrina S. M.D.; Mogford, Jon H. Ph.D.; Mustoe, Thomas A. M.D. (2002). "Effect of Mederma on Hypertrophic Scarring in the Rabbit Ear Model". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 110 (1): 177–183. doi:10.1097/00006534-200207000-00029. PMID 12087249. 
26. ^ "Onion Compound May Help Fight Osteoporosis". 2005-04-11. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/04/050411112150.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-30. 
27. ^ Chemical & Engineering News Vol. 85 No. 35, 1 Sept. 2008, "Letters", p. 7
28. ^ ^{a b c d} "Onion a day keeps doctor away? (funded by the New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets)" (hmtl). Cornell University. 2004-10-07. http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Oct04/onions.cancer.ssl.html. Retrieved 2008-01-30. 
29. ^ Rose, Peter et al. (2003). "Inhibition of peroxynitrite-mediated cellular toxicity, tyrosine nitration, and α1-antiproteinase inactivation by 3-mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol, a novel compound isolated from Allium cepa". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 302 (2): 397–402. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(03)00193-1. PMID 12604361. 
30. ^ Eric Block, "Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science" (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010)
31. ^ ^{a b} Scott, Thomas. "What is the chemical process that causes my eyes to tear when I peel an onion?". Ask the Experts: Chemistry. Scientific American. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=what-is-the-chemical-proc. Retrieved 2007-04-28. 
32. ^ "FAQ". Onions-usa.org. http://www.onions-usa.org/about/faq.php#cooking. Retrieved 2009-09-04. 
33. ^ Staunton, Margot (2008-02-01). "Scientists create 'no tears' onions". News.com.au. http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,23144566-23109,00.html. Retrieved 2009-09-04. ^{[dead link]}
34. ^ Brewster, James L. (1994). Onions and other vegetable alliums (1st ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 5. ISBN 0-85198-753-2. 
35. ^ Brewster, James L. (1994). Onions and other vegetable alliums (1st ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 3. ISBN 0-85198-753-2. 
36. ^ Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). "Allium x proliferum information from NPGS/GRIN". USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?404736. Retrieved 21 February 2011. 
37. ^ ^{a b} Fritsch, R.M.; N. Friesen (2002). "Chapter 1: Evolution, Domestication, and Taxonomy". In H.D. Rabinowitch and L. Currah. Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 0-85199-510-1. 
38. ^ Brewster, James L. (1994). Onions and other vegetable alliums (1st ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 15. ISBN 0-85198-753-2. 
39. ^ Friesen, N. & M. Klaas (1998). "Origin of some vegetatively propagated Allium crops studied with RAPD and GISH". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 45 (6): 511–523. doi:10.1023/A:1008647700251. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t3520923j4311143/. 
40. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Canadian Produce Marketing Association > Home Storage Guide for Fresh Fruits & Vegetables Retrieved August 2010
41. ^ Faostat.fao.org

References

• Block, E. (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry (UK). ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9. 
• Sen, Colleen T. (2004). Food culture in India. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 0313324875.
• Barbagallo, Tricia (June 1, 2005). "Black Beach: The Mucklands of Canastota, New York" (PDF). http://www.archives.nysed.gov/apt/magazine/MagSummer05FeatureArticle_000.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-04. 

External links

• PROTAbase on Allium cepa
• Watch the Video: No Cry Onion Chopping (with Jonathon Stewart)