Rabbinic literature

See also: Rabbinic Judaism and Oral Torah

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Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writing, and thus corresponds with the Hebrew term Sifrut Hazal (ספרות חז"ל; "Literature [of our] sages [of] blessed memory," where Hazal normally refers only to the sages of the Talmudic era). This more specific sense of "Rabbinic literature"—referring to the Talmudim, Midrash, and related writings, but hardly ever to later texts—is how the term is generally intended when used in contemporary academic writing. On the other hand, the terms meforshim and parshanim (commentaries/commentators) almost always refer to later, post-Talmudic writers of Rabbinic glosses on Biblical and Talmudic texts.

This article discusses rabbinic literature in both senses. It begins with the classic rabbinic literature of the Talmudic era (Sifrut Hazal), and then adds a broad survey of rabbinic writing from later periods.

Mishnaic literature

The Mishnah and the Tosefta (compiled from materials pre-dating the year 200) are the earliest extant works of rabbinic literature, expounding and developing Judaism's Oral Law, as well as ethical teachings. Following these came the two Talmuds:

• The Jerusalem Talmud, c. 450
• The Babylonian Talmud, c. 600
• The minor tractates (part of the Babylonian Talmud)

The Midrash

Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical, homiletical, or narrative writing, often configured as a commentary on the Bible or Mishnah. There are a large number of "classical" Midrashic works spanning a period from Mishnaic to Geonic times, often showing evidence of having been worked and reworked from earlier materials, and frequently coming to us in multiple variants. A compact list of these works [based on (Holtz 1984)] is given below; a more thorough annotated list can be found under Midrash. The timeline below must be approximate because many of these works were composed over a long span of time, borrowing and collating material from earlier versions; their histories are therefore somewhat uncertain and the subject of scholarly debate. In the table, "n.e." designates that the work in question is not extant except in secondary references.

Extra-canonical rabbinical literature ("n.e." designates "not extant")

Estimated date	Exegetical	Homiletical	Narrative
Tannaitic period (till 200 CE)	Mekhilta Mekilta le-Sefer Devarim (n.e.) Sifra Sifre	Alphabet of Akiba ben Joseph (?)	Seder Olam Rabbah
400–650 CE	Genesis Rabbah Lamentations Rabbah	Leviticus Rabbah Pesikta de-Rav Kahana Midrash Tanhuma	Seder Olam Zutta
650–900 CE	Midrash Proverbs Ecclesiastes Rabbah	Deuteronomy Rabbah Pesikta Rabbati Avot of Rabbi Natan	Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer Tanna Devei Eliyahu
900–1000 CE	Midrash Psalms Exodus Rabbah Ruth Zuta Lamentations Zuta
1000–1200	Midrash Aggadah of Moses ha-Darshan Midrash Tadshe		Sefer ha-Yashar
Later	Yalkut Shimoni Midrash ha-Gadol Ein Yaakov Numbers Rabbah

Later works by category

Major codes of Jewish law

Main article: Halakha

• Mishneh Torah
• Arba'ah Turim
• Shulchan Aruch
• Beit Yosef
• Chayei Adam

• The Responsa literature

Jewish thought and ethics

Jewish philosophy

• • Philo
  • Isaac Israeli
  • Emunot v'Dayyot
  • Guide to the Perplexed
  • Bachya ibn Pakuda
  • Sefer Ikkarim
  • Wars of the Lord
  • Or Adonai
• Kabbalah
  • Etz Hayim
  • Bahir
  • Zohar
  • Pardes Rimonim
  • Sepher Yetzirah
  • Sefer Raziel HaMalakh
• Aggada
• The works of Hasidic Judaism
  • The Tanya
  • Vayoel Moshe
  • Likutey Moharan
• Musar Literature
  • Mesillat Yesharim
  • Shaarei Teshuva
  • Orchot Tzaddikim
  • Sefer Chasidim

Liturgy

• The Siddur and Jewish liturgy
• Piyyutim (Classical Jewish poetry)

Later works by historical period

Works of the Geonim

The Geonim are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylon (650 - 1250) :

• She'iltoth of Acha'i [Gaon]
• Halachoth Gedoloth
• Emunoth ve-Deoth (Saadia Gaon)
• The Siddur by Amram Gaon
• Responsa

Works of the Rishonim (the "early" rabbinical commentators)

The Rishonim are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1000 - 1550)

• The commentaries on the Torah, such as those by Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra and Nahmanides.
• Commentaries on the Talmud, principally by Rashi, his grandson Samuel ben Meir and Nissim of Gerona.
• Talmudic novellae (chiddushim) by Tosafists, Nahmanides, Nissim of Gerona, Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA), Yomtov ben Ashbili (Ritva)
• Works of halakha (Asher ben Yechiel, Mordechai ben Hillel)
• Codices by Maimonides and Jacob ben Asher, and finally Shulkhan Arukh
• Responsa, e.g. by Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA)
• Kabbalistic works (such as the Zohar)
• Philosophical works (Maimonides, Gersonides, Nahmanides)
• Ethical works (Bahya ibn Paquda, Jonah of Gerona)

Works of the Acharonim (the "later" rabbinical commentators)

The Acharonim are the rabbis from 1550 to the present day.

• Important Torah commentaries include Keli Yakar (Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz), Ohr ha-Chayim by Chayim ben-Attar, the commentary of Samson Raphael Hirsch, and the commentary of Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin.
• Important works of Talmudic novellae include: Pnei Yehoshua, Hafla'ah, Sha'agath Aryei
• Responsa, e.g. by Moses Sofer, Moshe Feinstein
• Works of halakha and codices e.g. Mishnah Berurah by Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Aruch ha-Shulchan by Yechiel Michel Epstein
• Ethical and philosophical works: Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Mussar Movement
• Hasidic works (Kedushath Levi, Sefath Emmeth, Shem mi-Shemuel)
• Philosophical/metaphysical works (the works of the Maharal of Prague, Moshe Chaim Luzzatto and Nefesh ha-Chayim by Chaim of Volozhin)
• Mystical works
• Historical works, e.g. Shem ha-Gedolim by Chaim Joseph David Azulai.

Meforshim

Meforshim is a Hebrew word meaning "(classical rabbinical) commentators" (or roughly meaning "exegetes"), and is used as a substitute for the correct word perushim which means "commentaries". In Judaism this term refers to commentaries on the Torah (five books of Moses), Tanakh, the Mishnah, the Talmud, responsa, even the siddur (Jewish prayerbook), and more.

Classic Torah and Talmud commentaries

Classic Torah and/or Talmud commentaries have been written by the following individuals:

• Geonim
  • Saadia Gaon, 10th century Babylon
• Rishonim
  • Rashi (Shlomo Yitzchaki), 12th century France
  • Abraham ibn Ezra
  • Nahmanides (Moshe ben Nahman)
  • Samuel ben Meir, the Rashbam, 12th century France
  • Rabbi Levi ben Gershom (known as Ralbag or Gersonides)
  • David ben Joseph Kimhi, the Radak, 13th century France
  • Joseph ben Isaac, also known as the Bekhor Shor, 12th century France
  • Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi, the RaN, 14th century Spain
  • Isaac ben Judah Abravanel (1437-1508)
  • Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno, 16th century Italy
• Acharonim
  • The Vilna Gaon, Rabbi Eliyahu of Vilna, 18th century Lithuania
  • The Malbim, Meir Lob ben Jehiel Michael

Classical Talmudic commentaries were written by Rashi. After Rashi the Tosafot were written, which was an omnibus commentary on the Talmud by the disciples and descendants of Rashi; this commentary was based on discussions done in the rabbinic academies of Germany and France.

Modern Torah commentaries

Modern Torah commentaries which have received wide acclaim in the Jewish community include:

• Orthodox:
  • Haemek Davar by Rabbi Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin
  • The Chofetz Chaim
  • Torah Temimah of Baruch ha-Levi Epstein
  • Kerem HaTzvi, by Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch Ferber
  • Sefat Emet (Lips of Truth), Yehudah Aryeh Leib of Ger, 19th century Europe
  • The "Pentateuch and Haftaras" by Joseph H. Hertz
  • The Torah commentary of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch
  • Nechama Leibowitz, a noted woman scholar
  • Ha-Ketav veha-Kabbalah by Rabbi Yaakov Zwi Meckelenburg
  • The Soncino Books of the Bible

• Conservative Judaism:
  • The five volume JPS Commentary on the Torah by Nahum M. Sarna, Baruch A. Levine, Jacob Milgrom and Jeffrey H. Tigay
  • Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary by David L. Lieber, Harold Kushner and Chaim Potok

• Reform Judaism
  • "A Torah Commentary for Our Times," a three-volume commentary edited by Rabbi Harvey Fields
  • "Sparks Beneath the Surface" by Rabbis Lawrence S. Kushner and Kerry M. Olitzky, spiritual commentary based on Hasidic teachings
  • "The Torah: A Women's Commentary" edited by Dr. Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Rabbi Andrea Weiss, featuring new critical approaches such as literary criticism, sociology, and feminism not found in traditional commentaries.

• Jewish Feminism
  • "The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions." Edited by Rabbi Elyse Goldstein. Jewish Lights Publishing, September 2008.

Modern Siddur commentaries

Modern Siddur commentaries have been written by:

• Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan HaCohen, The Chofetz Chaim's Siddur
• Samson Raphael Hirsch, The Hirsch Siddur, Feldheim
• Abraham Isaac Kook, Olat Reyia
• The Authorised Daily Prayer Book with commentary by Joseph H. Hertz
• Elie Munk, The World of Prayer, Elie Munk
• Nosson Scherman, The Artscroll Siddur, Mesorah Publications
• Jonathan Sacks, in The Authorised Daily Prayer Book of the British Commonwealth (the new version of "Singer's Prayer Book") as well as the Koren Sacks Siddur.
• Reuven Hammer, Or Hadash, a siddur commentary built around the text of Siddur Sim Shalom, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
• My Peoples Prayer Book, Jewish Lights Publishing, written by a team of non-Orthodox rabbis and Talmud scholars.

See also

• Rabbinic Judaism
• Oral Torah
• The Traditional Jewish Bookshelf
• Jewish commentaries on the Bible
• Torah databases (electronic versions of traditional Jewish texts)
• Moses in rabbinic literature
• List of rabbis
• List of Jewish Prayers and Blessings

Bibliography

• Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts, Barry W. Holtz, (Summit Books)
• Introduction to Rabbinic Literature Jacob Neusner, (Anchor Bible Reference Library/Doubleday)
• Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, H. L. Strack and G. Stemberger, (Fortress Press)
• The Literature of the Sages: Oral Torah, Halakha, Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, External Tractates, Shemuel Safrai and Peter J. Tomson (Fortress, 1987)

External links

General

• A survey of rabbinic literature
• A timeline of Jewish texts
• Comprehensive listing by category - Global Jewish Database
• Judaica archival project
• Chapters On Jewish Literature
• Online Resources for the Study of Rabbinic Literature

Links to full text resources

• Mechon Mamre
• Sages of Ashkenaz Database
• Halacha Brura and Birur Halacha Institute
• The Electronic Torah Warehouse
• hebrewbooks.org
• seforimonline.org
• Primary Sources @ Ben Gurion University
• Young Israel library

Glossaries

• Judaic glossary
• Sources@JTS
• Glossary/Bibliography