Hairstyle

"Haircut" redirects here. For the financial term, see Haircut (finance). For the 1982 film, see The Haircut. For the 1995 film, see Haircut (film). For the 1993 album by George Thorogood, see Haircut (album).

Traditional hairstyle of a Japanese bride.

A hairstyle, hairdo, or haircut refers to the styling of hair, usually on the human head. The fashioning of hair can be considered an aspect of personal grooming, fashion, and cosmetics, although practical, cultural, and popular considerations also influence some hairstyles.^[1]

History of hairstyles

Throughout history, people have worn their hair in a wide variety of ways, largely determined by the fashions of the culture they live in. Hairstyles are markers and signifiers of social class, age, marital status, racial identification, political beliefs and attitudes about gender.

For most of history, women's hair has been allowed to grow to its full length, and then bleached, coloured, curled, crimped, arranged and otherwise modified, often worn up and fastened with pins, ribbons, jewels and combs. In many cultures, often for religious reasons, women's hair is covered while in public, and in some, such as Orthodox Judaism or European Orthodox communities, women's hair is shaved or cut very short, and covered with wigs.^[2] Only since the end of World War I have women begun to wear their hair short and in fairly natural styles.^[3]

Ancient hairstyles

In ancient civilizations, women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways. Women coloured their hair, curled it, and pinned it up in a variety of ways. They set their hair in waves and curls using wet clay, which they dried in the sun and then combed out, or else by using a jelly made of quince seeds soaked in water, or curling tongs and curling irons of various kinds.^[4][5]

Roman Empire and Middle Ages

Between 27 BC and 102 AD, in Imperial Rome, women wore their hair in complicated styles: a mass of curls on top, or in rows of waves, drawn back into ringlets or braids. Eventually noblewomen's hairstyles grew so complex that they required daily attention from several slaves and a stylist in order to be maintained. The hair was often lightened using wood ash, unslaked lime and sodium bicarbonate, or darkened with copper filings, oak-apples or leeches marinated in wine and vinegar.^[6] It was augmented by wigs, hairpieces and pads, and held in place by nets, pins, combs and pomade. Under the Byzantine Empire, noblewomen covered most of their hair with silk caps and pearl nets.^[7]

From the time of the Roman Empire until the Middle Ages, most women grew their hair as long as it would naturally grow. Initially they wore it loose, held in place with a band around the brow and covered with a snood, kerchief or veil. From the ninth century until the 16th century, women began to wear their hair in extremely ornate styles, often decorated with pearls, precious stones, ribbons and veils. Women used a technique called "lacing" or "taping," in which cords or ribbons were used to bind the hair around their heads.^[8] During this period, most of the hair was braided and hidden under wimples, veils or couvrechefs, and in the later half of the 15th century and on into the 16th century, wealthy women frequently plucked out hair at their temples and the napes of their necks, or used depilatory cream to remove it, if it would otherwise be visible at the edges of their hair coverings.^[9] Working-class women in this period wore their hair in simple styles.^[10]

Early modern history

Pompadour hairstyle

During the 15th and 16th centuries, European men wore their hair cropped no longer than shoulder-length, with very fashionable men wearing bangs or fringes. In Italy it was common for men to dye their hair.^[11]

From the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller, with both becoming more elaborate, and with hairstyles beginning to include ornamentation such as flowers, ostrich plumes, ropes of pearls, jewels, ribbons and small crafted objects such as replicas of ships and windmills.^[12][13] Bound hair was felt to be symbolic of propriety: loosening one's hair was considered immodest and sexual, and sometimes was felt to have supernatural connotations.^[14] Red hair was popular, particularly in England during the reign of the red-haired Elizabeth I, and women and aristocractic men used borax, saltpeter, saffron and sulfur powder to dye their hair red, making themselves nauseated and giving themselves headaches and nosebleeds.^[15][16] During this period in Spain and Latin cultures, women wore lace mantillas, often worn over a high comb,^[17][18] and in Buenos Aires, there developed a fashion for extremely large tortoise-shell hair combs called peinetón, which could measure up to three feet in height and width, and which are said by historians to have reflected the growing influence of France, rather than Spain, upon Argentinians.^[19]

In the middle of the 18th century the pompadour style developed, with women creating volume in the hair at the front of the head, sometimes with a pad underneath to lift it higher, and ornamented the back with seashells, pearls or gemstones. In 1750, women began dressing their hair with perfumed pomade and powdering it white. Just before World War I, some women began wearing silk turbans over their hair.^[20]

In the early 1870s, in a shift that historians attribute to the influence of the West^[21], Japanese men began cutting their hair into styles known as jangiri or zangiri (which roughly means "random cropping").^[22] During this period, Asian women were still wearing traditional hairstyles held up with combs, pins and sticks crafted from tortoise, metal, wood and other materials,^[23] but in the middle 1880s, upper-class Japanese women began pushing back their hair in the Western style (known as sokuhatsu), or adopting Westernized versions of traditional Japanese hairstyles (these were called yakaimaki, or literally, soirée chignon).^[24]

The inter-war years

During the First World War, women around the world started to shift to shorter hairstyles that were easier to manage. In the 1920s women started for the first time to bob, shingle and crop their hair, often covering it with small head-hugging cloche hats. In Korea, the bob was called "tanbal."^[25] Women began marcelling their hair, creating deep waves in it using heated scissor irons. Durable permanent waving became popular also in this period: it was an expensive, uncomfortable and time-consuming process, in which the hair was put in curlers and inserted into a steam or dry heat machine. During the 1930s women began to wear their hair slightly longer, in page boys, bobs or waves and curls.^[26] During this period, Western men began to wear their hair in ways popularized by movie stars such as Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. and Rudolph Valentino. Men wore their hair short, and either parted on the side or in the middle, or combed straight back, and used pomade, creams and tonics to keep their hair in place. At the beginning of the Second World War and for some time afterwards, men's haircuts grew shorter, mimicking the military crewcut.^[27]

During the 1920s and 1930s, Japanese women began wearing their hair in a style called mimi-kakushi (literally, "ear hiding"), in which hair was pulled back to cover the ears and tied into a bun at the nape of the neck. Waved or curled hair became increasingly popular for Japanese women throughout this period, and permanent waves, though controversial, were extremely popular. Bobbed hair also became more popular for Japanese women, mainly among actresses and moga, or "cut-hair girls," young Japanese women who followed Westernized fashions and lifestyles in the 1920s.^[28]

The post-war years

After the war, women started to wear their hair in softer, more natural styles. In the early 1950s women's hair was generally curled and worn in a variety of styles and lengths. In the later 1950s, high bouffant and beehive styles, sometimes nicknamed B-52s for their similarity to the bulbous noses of the B-52 Stratofortress bomber, became popular.^[29] During this period many women washed and set their hair only once a week, and kept it in place by wearing curlers every night and reteasing and respraying it every morning.^[30] In the 1960s, many women began to wear their hair in short modern cuts such as the pixie cut, while in the 1970s, hair tended to be longer and looser. In both the 1960s and 1970s many men and women wore their hair very long and straight.^[31] Women straightened their hair through chemical straightening processes, by ironing their hair at home with a clothes iron, or by rolling it up with large empty cans while wet.^[32] African-American men and women began wearing their hair naturally (unprocessed) in large Afros, sometimes ornamented with Afro picks made from wood or plastic.^[33] By the end of the 1970s the Afro had fallen out of favour among African-Americans, and was being replaced by other natural hairstyles such as cane rows and dreadlocks.^[34]

Modern hairstyles

Since the 1970s, women have worn their hair in a wide variety of fairly natural styles. In the nineteen-eighties women pulled back their hair with scrunchies, stretchy ponytail holders made from cloth over fabric bands. Women also often wear glittery ornaments today, as well as claw-style barrettes used to secure ponytails and other upswept or partially-upswept hairstyles.^[35] Today, women and men can choose from a broad range of hairstyles, but they are still expected to wear their hair in ways that conform to gender norms: in much of the world, men with long hair and women whose hair doesn't appear carefully groomed may face various forms of discrimination, including harassment, social shaming or workplace discrimination.^[36] This is somewhat less true of African-American men, who wear their hair in a variety of styles that overlap with those of African-American women, including braids and cornrows fastened with beads, rubber bands and barrettes.^[37]

Factors that define a hairstyle

Japanese women and girls in Western dress with various Western hairstyles. 1 September 1887.

A hairstyle's aesthetic considerations may be determined by many factors, such as the subject's physical attributes and desired self-image or the stylist's artistic instincts.

Physical factors include natural hair type and growth patterns, face and head shape from various angles, and overall body proportions; medical considerations may also apply. Self-image may be directed toward conforming to mainstream values (military-style crew cuts or current "fad" hairstyles such as the Dido flip), identifying with distinctively-groomed subgroups (e.g., punk hair), or obeying religious dictates (e.g., Orthodox Jewish have payot, Rastafari have Dreadlocks, North India jatas, or the Sikh practice of Kesh), though this is highly contextual and a "mainstream" look in one setting may be limited to a "subgroup" in another.

A hairstyle is achieved by arranging hair in a certain way, occasionally using combs, a blow-dryer, gel, or other products. The practice of styling hair is often called "hairdressing", especially when done as an occupation.

Hairstyling may also include adding accessories (such as headbands or barrettes) to the hair to hold it in place, enhance its ornamental appearance, or partially or fully conceal it with coverings such as a kippa, hijab, tam or turban.

Hairstyle process

Most cosmetology programs in the United States require students to purchase practice heads that are made with real human hair. Students can cut, color and add permanents as they are trained in the procedures.

Hair dressing may include cuts, weaves, coloring, extensions, perms, permanent relaxers, curling, and any other form of styling or texturing.

Length and trimming

Hair cutting or hair trimming is intended to create or maintain a specific shape and form. Its extent may range from merely trimming the uneven ends of the hair to a uniform length to completely shaving the head.

The overall shape of the hairstyle is usually maintained by trimming it at regular intervals. There are ways to trim one's own hair but usually another person is enlisted to perform the process, as it is difficult to maintain symmetry while cutting hair at the back of one's head. Although trimming enhances the hair's appearance by removing damaged or split ends, it does not promote faster growth or remove all damage along the length of the hair.

Stylists often wash a subject's hair first, so that the hair is cut while still slightly damp. Compared to dry hair, wet hair can be easier to manage in a cut/style situation because the added weight and surface tension of the water cause the strands to stretch downward and cling together along the hair's length, holding a line and making it easier for the stylist to create a form.

Brushing and combing

Hair styling in Himba tribe

Brushes and combs are used to organize and untangle the hair, encouraging all of the strands to lie in the same direction and removing debris such as lint, dandruff, or hairs that have already shed from their follicles but continue to cling to the other hairs.

There are all manner of detangling tools available in a wide variety of price ranges. Combs come in all shapes and sizes and all manner of materials including plastics, wood, and horn. Similarly, brushes also come in all sizes and shapes, including various paddle shapes. Most benefit from using some form of a wide tooth comb for detangling. Most physicians advise against sharing hair care instruments like combs and clips, to prevent spreading hair conditions like dandruff and head lice.

The historical dictum to brush hair with one hundred strokes every day is somewhat archaic, dating from a time when hair was washed less frequently; the brushstrokes would spread the scalp's natural oils down through the hair, creating a protective effect. Now, however, this does not apply when the natural oils have been washed off by frequent shampoos. Also, hairbrushes are now usually made with rigid plastic bristles instead of the natural boar's bristles that were once standard; the plastic bristles increase the likelihood of actually injuring the scalp and hair with excessively vigorous brushing.

Drying

Hair dryers speed the drying process of hair by blowing air, which is usually heated, over the wet hair shaft to accelerate the rate of water evaporation.

Excessive heat may increase the rate of shaft-splitting or other damage to the hair. Hair dryer diffusers can be used to widen the stream of air flow so it is weaker but covers a larger area of the hair.

Hair dryers can also be used as a tool to sculpt the hair to a very slight degree. Proper technique involves aiming the dryer such that the air does not blow onto the face or scalp, which can cause burns.

Braiding and “Updos”

Tight or frequent braiding may pull at the hair roots and cause traction alopecia. Rubber bands with metal clasps or tight clips, which bend the hair shaft at extreme angles, can also have the same effect.

If hair is pinned too tightly, or the whole updo slips causing pulling on the hair in the follicle at the hair root are other scenarios that can cause aggravation to the hair follicle and result in headaches. Although many African- Americans use braiding extensions as a form of convenience, it is important not to keep the braids up longer than needed to avoid hair breakage or hair loss.

An industry

Hair styling is a major world industry, from the salon itself to products, advertising, and even magazines on the subject. In the United States, most hairstylists are licensed after obtaining training at a cosmetology or beauty school.^[38]

In recent years, competitive events for professional stylists have grown in popularity. Stylists compete on deadline to create the most elaborate hairstyle using props, lights and other fantastic accessories.^[39]

Hairstyling tools

Hair being straightened with a straightening iron.

Styling tools may include hair irons (including flat, curling, and crimping irons), hair dryers, and hair rollers. Hair dressing might also include the use of hair product to add texture, shine, curl, volume or hold to a particular style.

Hairstyling products

Styling products aside from shampoo and conditioner are many and varied. Leave-in conditioner, conditioning treatments, mousse, gels, lotions, waxes, creams, clays, serums, oils, and sprays are used to change the texture or shape of the hair, or to hold it in place in a certain style. Applied properly, most styling products will not damage the hair apart from drying it out; most styling products contain alcohols, which can dissolve oils. Many hair products contain chemicals which can cause build-up, resulting in dull hair or a change in perceived texture.

Wigs

Care of human or other natural hair wigs is similar to care of a normal head of hair in that the wig can be brushed, styled, and kept clean using haircare products.

Synthetic wigs are usually made from a fine fiber that mimics human hair. This fiber can be made in almost any color and hairstyle, and is often glossier than human hair. However, this fiber is sensitive to heat and cannot be styled with flat irons or curling irons.There is a newer synthetic fiber that can take heat up to a certain temperature.

Human hair wigs can be styled with heat, and they must be brushed only when dry. Synthetic wigs should be brushed dry before shampooing to remove tangles. To clean the wig, the wig should be dipped into a container with water and mild shampoo, then dipped in clear water and moved up and down to remove excess water. The wig must then be air dried naturally into its own hairstyle.

Functional and decorative ornaments

There are many options to adorn and arrange the hair. Hairpins, clasps, barrettes, headbands, ribbons, rubber bands, scrunchies, and combs can be used to achieve a variety of styles. There are also many decorative ornaments that, while they may have clasps to affix them to the hair, are used solely for appearance and do not aid in keeping the hair in place. In India for example, the Gajra (flower garland) is common there are heaps on hairstyles.

Social and cultural implications of hairstyles

Gender and hairstyle

At most times in most cultures, men have worn their hair in styles that are different from women's. American sociologist Rose Weitz once wrote that the most widespread cultural rule about hair is that women's hair must differ from men's hair.^[40] An exception is the men and women living in the Orinoco-Amazon Basin, where traditionally both genders have worn their hair cut into a bowl shape. In Western countries in the 1960s, both young men and young women wore their hair long and natural.^[41] During most periods in human history when men and women wore similar hairstyles, as in the 1920s and 1960s, it has generated significant social concern and approbation.^[42]

Religion and hairstyle

Cutting off one's hair is often associated with religious faith: Catholic nuns often cut their hair very short, and men who joined Catholic monastic orders in the eight century adopted what was known as the tonsure, which involved shaving the tops of their heads and leaving a ring of hair around the bald crown.^[43] Many Buddhists, Hajj pilgrims and Vaisnavas, especially members of the Hare Krishna movement, shave their heads. Some Hindu and most Buddhist monks and nuns shave their heads upon entering their order, and Korean Buddhist monks and nuns have their heads shaved every 15 days.^[44] Many Islamic women cover their hair in public, and display it only to their family and close friends.^[45]

Marital status and hairstyle

At about 100 CE, Jewish women began to cut off all their hair and wear wigs upon marriage, and today, many Orthodox Jewish women still wear their hair covered. During the Middle Ages, European women were expected to cover their hair after they were married, as a sign of modesty. In the 1800s, American women started wearing their hair up when they became ready to get married. Among the Fulani people of west Africa, unmarried women wear their hair ornamented with small amber beads and coins, while married women wear large amber ornaments. Marriage is signified among the Toposa women of South Sudan by wearing the hair in many small pigtails. Unmarried Hopi women have traditionally worn a "butterfly" hairstyle characterized by a twist or whorl of hair at each side of the face.^[46]

Hairstyles and life transitions

In many cultures, including Hindu culture and among the Wayana people of the Guiana highlands, young people have historically shaved off their hair to denote coming-of-age. Women in India historically have signified adulthood by switching from wearing two braids to one. Among the Rendille of north-eastern Kenya and the Tchikrin people of the Brazilian rainforest, both men and women shave their heads after the death of a close family member. When a man died in ancient Greece, his wife cut off her hair and buried it with him,^[47] and in Hindu families, the chief mourner is expected to shave his or her head 10 days after a death.^[48]

Hair and social class

Throughout history, hair has been a signifier of social class.

Upper-class people have always used their hairstyles to signal wealth and status. Wealthy Roman women wore complex hairstyles that needed the labours of several people to maintain them,^[49] and rich people have also often chosen hairstyles that restricted or burdened their movement, making it obvious that they did not need to work.^[50] Wealthy people's hairstyles used to be at the cutting edge of fashion, setting the styles for the less wealthy. But today, the wealthy are generally observed to wear their hair in conservative styles that date back decades prior.^[51]

Middle-class hairstyles tend to be understated and professional. Middle-class people aspire to have their hair look healthy and natural, implying that they have the resources to live a healthy lifestyle and take good care of themselves. Adult middle-class women typically wear their hair shoulder-length or shorter, favouring brunette or soft blonde colours. Their hair is styled to accommodate a professional identity, avoiding strong colours or extremes of any kind.^[52]

Historically, working-class people's haircuts have tended to be practical and simple. Working-class men have often shaved their heads or worn their hair close-cropped, and working-class women have typically pulled their hair up and off their faces in simple styles. Today, however, working-class people often have more elaborate and fashion-conscious hairstyles than other social classes. Working-class Mexican men in American cities wear their hair in styles like the Mongolian (shaved except for a tuft of hair at the nape of the neck) or the ducktail (crewcut on top, tuft at the nape), and low-income African-Americans often wear their hair in complex patterns of braids and cornrows, fastened with barrettes and beads, and sometimes including shaved sections or bright colour. Sociologists say these styles are an attempt to express individuality and presence in the face of social denigration and invisibility.^[53]

See also

• Eponymous hairstyle
• Hair care
• Historical Christian hairstyles
• List of hairstyles

References

1. ^ The Cultural Spotlight of 1960's Hairstyles
2. ^ Simonton, Deborah (2006). The Routledge history of women in Europe since 1700. New York: Routledge. pp. 206. ISBN 0-415-30103-3. 
3. ^ Yarwood, Doreen (1978). The Encyclopedia of World Costume. New York: Scribner. pp. 215. ISBN 0-517-61943-1. 
4. ^ Yarwood, Doreen (1978). The Encyclopedia of World Costume. New York: Scribner. pp. 216–220. ISBN 0-517-61943-1. 
5. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 142. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
6. ^ Adams, David and Jacki Wadeson (1998). The Art of Hair Colouring. Cengage Publishing. pp. 1. ISBN 978-1861528940. http://www.amazon.com/Art-Hair-Colouring-David-Adams/dp/1861528949. 
7. ^ Yarwood, Doreen (1978). The Encyclopedia of World Costume. New York: Scribner. pp. 216. ISBN 0-517-61943-1. 
8. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
9. ^ Davis, Natalie Zemon and Arlette Farge (1993). A history of women in the west volume III: Renaissance and enlightenment paradoxes. Belknap Press. pp. 62. ISBN 1-067-40367-3. http://www.amazon.com/History-Women-West-III-Enlightenment/dp/0674403673. 
10. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
11. ^ Condra, Jill (2007). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing through World History: Volume 2, 1501-1800. Greenwood. pp. 45 and 72. ISBN 978-0313336645. http://www.amazon.com/Greenwood-Encyclopedia-Clothing-through-History/dp/0313336644. 
12. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
13. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 143. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
14. ^ Condra, Jill (2007). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History: 1501-1800. Greenwood. pp. 149. ISBN 978-0313336645. http://www.amazon.com/Greenwood-Encyclopedia-Clothing-through-History/dp/0313336644/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1316404556&sr=1-1. 
15. ^ Adams, David and Jacki Wadeson (1998). The Art of Hair Colouring. Cengage Publishing. pp. 1. ISBN 978-1861528940. http://www.amazon.com/Art-Hair-Colouring-David-Adams/dp/1861528949. 
16. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
17. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
18. ^ Keyes, Jean (1967). A history of women's hairstyles,1500-1965. Methuen. ISBN B0000CNN46. http://www.amazon.com/history-womens-hairstyles-1500-1965/dp/B0000CNN46. 
19. ^ Root, Regina A. (2005). The Latin American fashion reader (Dress, Body, Culture). Berg Publishers. pp. 33. ISBN 978-1859738931. http://www.amazon.com/Latin-American-Fashion-Reader-Culture/dp/1859738931. 
20. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
21. ^ O'Brien, Suzanne G. (10 November 2008). "Splitting Hairs: History and the Politics of Daily Life in Nineteenth-Century Japan". The Journal of Asian Studies 67: 1309–1339. doi:10.1017/S0021911808001794. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=23FA96F632BC198005F26BFA146E96BA.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=2541948. Retrieved 19 September 2011. 
22. ^ Slade, Toby (2010). Japanese Fashion: a Cultural History. Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1847882523. http://www.amazon.com/Japanese-Fashion-Cultural-Toby-Slade/dp/1847882528. 
23. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
24. ^ Slade, Toby (2010). Japanese Fashion: a Cultural History. Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1847882523. http://www.amazon.com/Japanese-Fashion-Cultural-Toby-Slade/dp/1847882528. 
25. ^ Jun Yoo, Theodore (2008). The politics of gender in colonial Korea: education, labor, and health, 1910-1945. University of California Press. pp. 76. ISBN 978-0520252882. http://www.amazon.com/Politics-Gender-Colonial-Korea-Education/dp/0520252888/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1316507151&sr=1-1. 
26. ^ Yarwood, Doreen (1978). The Encyclopedia of World Costume. New York: Scribner. pp. 216. ISBN 0-517-61943-1. 
27. ^ Peterson, Amy T. and Ann T. Kellogg (2008). The Greenwood encyclopedia of clothing through American history. Greenwood. pp. 278. ISBN 978-0313358555. http://www.amazon.com/Greenwood-Encyclopedia-Clothing-through-American/dp/0313358559/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1316388501&sr=1-1. 
28. ^ Slade, Toby (2010). Japanese Fashion: a Cultural History. Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1847882523. http://www.amazon.com/Japanese-Fashion-Cultural-Toby-Slade/dp/1847882528. 
29. ^ Patrick, Bethanne Kelly, and John Thompson, Henry Petroski (2009). An Uncommon History of Common Things. National Geographic. pp. 206. ISBN 978-1426204203. http://books.google.com/books?id=bcaXzXPP8ooC&pg=PA303&lpg=PA303&dq=An+Uncommon+History+of+Common+Things+By+Bethanne+Kelly+Patrick,+John+Thompson,+Henry+Petroski&source=bl&ots=V7-zbnASz1&sig=e0lsaCeZ5iHvJqFwARzLt72bNSI&hl=en&ei=QUd4Ts-VDc7UiAKm9pHSAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
30. ^ Craats, Rennay (2001). History of the 1960s. Weigl Publishers. pp. 15. ISBN 978-1930954298. http://www.amazon.com/History-1960s-20th-Century-USA/dp/1930954298. 
31. ^ Yarwood, Doreen (1978). The Encyclopedia of World Costume. New York: Scribner. pp. 220. ISBN 0-517-61943-1. 
32. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 144. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
33. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
34. ^ Biddle-Perry, Geraldine, and Sarah Cheang (2008). Hair: styling, culture and fashion. London: Berg Publishers. pp. 125. ISBN 9781845207922. http://www.bergpublishers.com/?tabid=4069. 
35. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history. Greenwood. pp. 2. ISBN 0313331456. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Hair-Cultural-Victoria-Sherrow/dp/0313331456. 
36. ^ Weitz, Rose (2004). Rapunzel's Daughters: What Women's Hair Tells Us About Women's Lives. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0374240820. http://www.amazon.com/Rapunzels-Daughters-Womens-Tells-About/dp/0374240825. 
37. ^ Banks, Ingrid (2008). Hair matters: beauty, power, and Black women's consciousness. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0814713372. http://www.amazon.com/Hair-Matters-Beauty-Womens-Consciousness/dp/0814713378/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1316507673&sr=1-1. 
38. ^ The American Association of Cosmetology Schools
39. ^ Competitions sponsored by the Professional Beauty Association in the United States
40. ^ Ofek, Galia (2009). Representations of hair in Victorian literature and culture. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0754661610. http://www.amazon.com/Representations-Hair-Victorian-Literature-Culture/dp/075466161X. 
41. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 141. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
42. ^ DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of body adornment. Greenwood. pp. 141. ISBN 978-0313336959. http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Body-Adornment-Margo-DeMello/dp/0313336954/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1316506799&sr=1-1. 
43. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 141. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
44. ^ Geraldine A. Larkin, First You Shave Your Head, Celestial Arts (2001), ISBN 1587610094
45. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 141. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
46. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 141–143. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
47. ^ Sherrow, Victoria (2001). For Appearance' Sake: The Historical Encyclopedia of Good Looks, Beauty, and Grooming. Greenwood. pp. 141. ISBN 978-1573562041. http://www.amazon.com/Appearance-Sake-Historical-Encyclopedia-Grooming/dp/1573562041. 
48. ^ ul Hassan, Syed Siraj (1920). The castes and tribes of H.E.H. the Nizam's dominions, Volume 1. Bombay: The Times Press. pp. 46. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924088964154. 
49. ^ Winter, Bruce W. (2003). Roman wives, Roman widows: the appearance of new women and the Pauline communities. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 104. ISBN 978-0802849717. http://www.amazon.com/Roman-Wives-Widows-Appearance-Communities/dp/0802849717. 
50. ^ Ofek, Galia (2009). Representations of hair in Victorian literature and culture. Ashgate. pp. 2. ISBN 978-0754661610. http://www.amazon.com/Representations-Hair-Victorian-Literature-Culture/dp/075466161X. 
51. ^ Fussell, Paul. Class: A Guide Through the American Status System. Touchstone. pp. 54. ISBN 978-0671792251. http://www.amazon.com/Class-Through-American-Status-System/dp/0671792253. 
52. ^ Gimlin, Debra. Body Work: Beauty and Self-Image in American Culture. University of California Press. pp. 38–44. ISBN 978-0520228566. http://www.amazon.com/Body-Work-Self-Image-American-Culture/dp/0520228561. 
53. ^ Sánchez-Jankowski, Martin. Cracks in the Pavement: Social Change and Resilience in Poor Neighborhoods. University of California Press. pp. 202–203. ISBN 978-0520256750. http://www.amazon.com/Cracks-Pavement-Social-Resilience-Neighborhoods/dp/0520256751.