Mongoloid

"Mongoloid" redirects here. For the song by Devo, see Mongoloid (song). For the genetic disorder, see Down's Syndrome.

Mongoloid race according to Thomas Henry Huxley from the Encyclopedia Britannica (1903)

Mongoloid (also Mongolic^[1]) is a term sometimes used by forensic anthropologists and physical anthropologists to refer to populations that share certain phenotypic traits such as epicanthic fold and shovel-shaped incisors and other physical traits common in East Asia, the Americas and the Arctic. The word is formed by the base word "Mongol" and the suffix "-oid" which means "resembling". It was introduced by early Racial science used to refer to the "yellow race", one of the proposed three major races of human kind. Since the concept of race has been largely abandoned as a useful way to describe human biological variation the terms have become mostly obsolete.^[2] Although especially Forensic anthropologists continue to use them in some contexts, outside of forensic anthropology the term mongoloid is now often considered derogatory, and racist.^{[3] [4]}

Populations included

The term "Mongoloid" comes from the Mongol people of East Asia, who invaded much of Eurasia during the 13th century, establishing the Mongol Empire. The first usage of the term Mongolian race was by Christoph Meiners in a "binary racial scheme" of "two races", with the Caucasian whose racial purity was exemplified by the "venerated... ancient Germans" and "Mongolians" who consisted of everyone else.^[5]

Johann Blumenbach said he borrowed the term Mongolian from Christoph Meiners to describe the race he designated "second, [which] includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river Amoor [Amur], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian".^[6]

In 1861, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire added the "Australian" as a "secondary race" (subrace) of the "principal race" of "Mongolian".^[7] In the nineteenth century Georges Cuvier used the term Mongolian again as a racial classification, but additionally included American Indians under the term.^[8] Arthur de Gobineau defined the extent of the "Mongolian" race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches."^[9][10] Later, Thomas Huxley used the term Mongoloid and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans.^[11] Other nomenclatures were proposed, such as Mesochroi (middle color),^[12] but Mongoloid was widely adopted.

In 1882, Irish anthropologist Augustus Henry Keane who was professor at University College, London, said the "Mongolic type" included the following "races": "Tibetans", "Burmese", "Tai", "Koreans", "Japanese", "Lu-Chu", "Finno-Tatars" and "Malays".^[13] Keane said the following peoples are "mixed Mongolo-Caucasic varieties": "Anatolian Turks", "Uzbegs", and "Tajiks of Turkestan".^[13] Keane said the "Kazaks" are "intermediate" between the "Túrki" and "Mongolian" races.^[13] Keane said the "Mongolian race" is "best represented" by the "Buriats".^[13]

In 1940, anthropologist Franz Boas included the "American race" as part of the "Mongoloid race" of which he mentioned the "Aztecs of Mexico" and the "Maya of Yucatan".^[14] Boas also said that, out of the "races of the Old World", the "American native" had features most similar to the "east Asiatic".^[14]

In 1983, Douglas J. Futuyma, professor of evolutionary processes at the University of Michigan, said that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by "many anthropologists" who consider them "distinct races".^[15]

In 1984, Roger J. Lederer Professor of Biological Sciences at the California State University at Chico,^[16] separately listed the "Mongoloid" race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "geographical variants of the same species known as races... we recognize several races Inuit, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian".^[17]

In 1998, Jack D. Forbes, professor of Native American Studies and Anthropology at the University of California, Davis, said that the racial type of the indigenous people of the Americas "does not fall into" the "Mongoloid" racial category.^[18] Forbes said that due to the various physical traits indigenous Americans exhibit, some with "head shapes which seem hardly distinct from many Europeans", indigenous Americans must have either been formed from a mixture of "Mongoloid" and "Caucasoid" races or they descend from the ancestral, common type of both "Mongoloid" and "Caucasoid" races.^[18]

Markku Niskanen (2002) of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Oulu, Finland, disputes past claims that "Finno-Ugrians" are "Mongoloid".^[19] Niskanen claims that the reality is that "Baltic-Finns", "Saami", "Volga-Finns", "Permian-Finns" and "Hungarians" are "phenotypically and genetically typical Europeans".^[19] Niskanen claims the "strong cheekbones" and "flaring zygomatic arches" considered to be evidence that "Finno-Ugrians" are "Mongoloid" are, in actuality, inherited from "Cro-Magnons".^[19] Furthermore, Niskanen refutes the claim that Finno-Ugrians have "Mongoloid-looking" "facial flatness" by showing "Finns" and "Saami" facial flatness is "close to the European average" and claiming "Finns" and "Saami" both "possess North European craniofacial configuration".^[19] In terms of genetics, Niskanen claims Finns are genetically close to their "Germanic-speaking neighbors (the Swedes, Germans, and Norwegians)" although he admits Finns are "somewhat less [genetically] distant" to the "Japanese" and "Mongols" than "Europeans are on average".^[19] Niskanen claims that the "Y-chromosomal DNA" supposedly showing "eastern paternal genetic contribution" in the gene pools of Finno-Ugrians, since it is "found most commonly among Asians", is, in actuality, a "genetic marker" of "late Ice Age population expansion".^[19] Niskanen disputes the claim that the commonality of a Uralic language means Finno-Ugrians are Mongoloid like the Samoyeds, arguing that the "Samoyeds" speak a "Uralic" language due to them having been "linguistically assimilated"^[19] and arguing that the genetic evidence shows "Finno-Ugrians" and "Samoyeds" "diverged a very long time ago".^[19]

In contrast to Niskanen, geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University (1994) said that the "Saame" were shown by "genetic analysis" to be "47.5%" "Mongoloid" and "52.5%" "Caucasoid" with a "standard error" of "± 4.9%".^[20] Cavalli-Sforza said the Saami's Caucasoid side of their DNA came "probably from Scandinavia" while their "Mongoloid" side is of "Siberian origin".^[21]

In 1995, Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said "all" "Asian populations" are "grouped under the name "Mongoloid".^[22]

In 2004, Hitoshi Chiba (千葉仁志, Chiba Hitoshi^?) et al. of the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan, performed "particle agglutination tests for serum HTLV-I antibody" on 400 ethnic "Saami" to determine if they had the "HTLV-I antibody" that would link them to "Asiatic Mongoloids" and they found that the Saami were lacking this antibody.^[23] Chiba et al. concluded that if Saami were related to the "Asiatic Mongoloid", the relationship would either have to involve "Neolithic rather than Upper Paleolithic populations" or the Saami would have to have been mixed with a group that lacked the antibody.^[23]

Subraces

See also: Asian subraces

In 1900, Joseph Deniker said, the "Mongol race admits two varieties or subraces: Tunguse or Northern Mongolian... and Southern Mongolian".^[7]

Archaeologist Peter Bellwood claims that the "vast majority" of people in Southeast Asia, the region he calls the "clinal Mongoloid-Australoid zone", are "Southern Mongoloids" but have a "high degree" of Australoid admixture.^[24]

Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said that there are "Neo-Mongoloids" and "Paleo-Mongoloids".^[25] Akazawa said Neo-Mongoloids have "extreme Mongoloid, cold-adapted features" and they include the Chinese, Buryats, Eskimo and Chukchi.^[25] In contrast, Akazawa said Paleo-Mongoloids are "less Mongoloid" and less "cold-adapted".^[25] He said Burmese, Filipinos, Polynesians, Jōmon and the indigenous peoples of the Americas were Paleo-Mongoloid.^[25]

History of the concept

Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–90).

Caucasoid race   Aryan   Semitic   Hamitic Negroid race   black African   Hottentot   Melanesian   Negrito   Australoid Uncertain   Dravida & Sinhalese

Mongoloid race   North Mongol   Chinese & Indochinese   Japanese & Korean   Tibetan   Malay   Polynesian   Maori   Micronesian   Eskimo   American

Huxley's "four great groups of mankind" (1870)

I. Australoid Type   Australoids IV. Mongoloid Type   Polynesians   Mongoloids-A   Mongoloids-B   Mongoloids-C   Eskimo

II. Negroid Type   Bushmen   Negroes   Negritos III. Xanthochroic Type   "Melanochroi"   "Xanthrochroi"

The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in De generis humani varietate nativa (On the Natural Variety of Mankind, University of Göttingen, first published in 1775, re-issued with alteration of the title-page in 1776). Blumenbach included East and South East Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories.

In 1865, biologist Thomas Huxley presented the views of polygenesists (Huxley was not one of them) as "some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the Orangs."^[26]

In 1972, physical anthropologist Carleton Coon said, "From a hyborean [sic] group there evolved, in northern Asia, the ancestral strain of the entire specialized Mongoloid family."^[27] In 1962, Coon believed that the Mongoloid "subspecies" existed "during most of the Pleistocene, from 500,000 to 10,000 years ago".^[28] According to Coon, the Mongoloid race had not completed its "invasions and expansions" into Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands until "[t]oward the end of the Pleistocene".^[28] By this time Coon hypothesis that the Mongoloid race had become "sapien".^[28]

Paleo-anthropologist Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari characterize "his [Carleton Coon's] contention [as being] that the Mongoloid race crossed the 'sapiens threshold' first and thereby evolved the furthest".^[29]

Mohinder Kumar Bhasin (Hindi: महेंद्र कुमार भसीन) of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Delhi suggested in a review of an article referencing Mourant 1983 that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloid almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids."^[30]

Douglas J. Futuyma, professor of evolutionary processes at the University of Michigan, said the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".^[15]

In 1996, professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said Mongoloids originated in Xinjiang during the "Ice Age".^[25]

In 1999, Peter Brown of the Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology at the University of New England evaluated three sites with early East Asian modern human skeletal remains (Liujiang, Liuzhou, Guangxi, China; Shandingdong Man of (but not Peking Man) Zhoukoudian's Upper Cave; and Minatogawa in Okinawa) dated to between 10,175 to 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid"; this would make Neolithic sites 5500 to 7000 years ago (e.g. Banpo) the oldest known Mongoloid remains in East Asia, younger than some in the Americas. He concludes that the origin of the Mongoloid phenotype remains unknown, and could even lie in the New World.^[31]

In 2006, Yali Xue (Chinese: 薛亞黎) et al. of the genome research Sanger Institute conducted a study of linkage disequilibrium that found that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 thousand years ago, before the last glacial maximum at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant megafauna of the "Mammoth Steppe", while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as tubers.^[32]

In 2008, Juan Frijolé Reixach professor of cultural anthropology at the University of Barcelona showcased the racial classification systems of Carleton S. Coon and H.V. Vallois in his 2008 book series about human races.^[33] Reixach said Vallois said the "Yellow Race" included the following groups: Siberian, North Mongoloid, Central Mongoloid, South Mongoloid, Indonesian, Polynesian, Eskimo and Amerindian.^[33]

Features

See also: Asian features and Epicanthal fold

"Mongoloid" eye according to anthropologist Joseph Deniker

Louis R. Sullivan Curator of Physical Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History has identified these three men as "full-blood Samoan" men

William W. Howells, professor of anthropology at Harvard University, made this map entitled "Distribution of Asian peoples" where "A" represents "Australoids", "N" represents "Negrito" people and the colored yellow and red regions represent "Sinodont" and "Sundadont" "Mongoloids" respectively.^[34]

This is a recreation of the craniometric dendogram entitled "Cranial Cluster 28 Groups" in a book by anthropologist William White Howells, professor of anthropology at Harvard University who said "Indians" or "American populations" are closest in "studies of cranial distance" to "Europeans" as seen above and that among "Indians" or "American populations", only "Eskimos" are "strongly Mongoloid in form".^[34] See Also: Kennewick man

In 2004, forensic anthropologist Caroline Wilkenson said Mongoloids are characterized by "absent browridges".^[35] R.G. Ong of the Department of Oral Radiology, Perth Dental Hospital, Australia found that "Mongoloid" subjects had about "20% higher bone density at the angle of the mandible" when compared to "Caucasoid" subjects.^[36]

Louis R. Sullivan Curator of Physical Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, said "Samoans" are of the "Mongoloid race" but their features represent a "slightly different evolution since the time of their separation and isolation from their parental stock" or a "retention" of features that have been lost in other "Mongoloid types".^[37] Sullivan said the "wavy" and "wooly" hair of the "Samoan" is one such retention compared to the "stiff, coarse" hair that typifies the "Mongoloid".^[37] Sullivan lists most of the characteristics of the "Samoan" as having "Mongoloid" "affinities" such as: "skin color", "hair color", "eye color", "conjuctiva", "amount of beard", "hair on chest", "nasal bridge", "nostrils", "lips", "face width", "biogonial width", "cephalo-facial index", "nasal height", "ear height" and "chin".^[37]

Dr. Rukang Wu (Chinese: 吴汝康) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Academia Sinica, China, said "Mongoloid features" are a "mesocranic" skull, "fairly large and protruding" "cheekbones", "nasal bones are flat and broad", "nasal bridge is slightly concave" without "depression in the nasion", "the lower borders of the piriform aperature are not sharp but guttered", "prenasal fossae are shallow", small "anterior nasal spine", trace amounts of "canine fossae" and "moderate" "alveolar prognathism".^[38]

Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said the "Paleoindian" has "proto-Mongoloid" "morphology" such as "pronounced development of supraorbital ridges low frontals, marked post-orbital constriction, prominent and protruding occipitals, small mastoids, long crania and a relatively narrow bizygomatic breadth".^[22]

In 1882, Irish anthropologist Augustus Henry Keane who was professor at University College, London, said that the features of the "Japanese" that "attest their relationship with the great Mongolian family" are "slightly oblique eyes", "small nose", "black lank hair", "sparse beard", "salient cheek-bones" and "yellowish complexion".^[13]

Shunsuke Yuzuriha (Japanese:杠俊介) et al. of Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan, said the "Mongoloid eyelid" is characterized by "puffiness" of the upper eyelid, "superficial expansion of the levator aponeurosis" that are "turned up around this transverse ligament to become the orbital septum", "low position of the preaponeurotic fat" and "narrowness of the palpebral fissure".^[39]

Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at University of Pennsylvania said the "Mongoloid racial type" is distinguished by "forward-projecting malar (cheek) bones", "comparatively flat faces", "large circular orbits", "moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin", "larger, more gracile braincase", "broader skull", "broader face" and "flatter roof of the nose".^[40]

Akazawa said Mongoloid skin has "thick skin cuticle" and an abundance of "carotene (yellow pigment)".^[25] Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation and Clinical Lecturer in Dermatology said "Mongoloid males" have "little or no facial or body hair".^[41] Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri said Mongoloid hair is coarse, straight, "blue-black "and weighs the most out of the races.^[42] Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri and Oliver H. Duggins of the Department of Anatomy Washington University said the "size of the average Mongoloid hair" is 0.0051 square millimetres (7.9×10⁻⁶ sq in) based on samples from "Chinese", "North and South American Indians", "Eskimos" and "Thais".^[43] Daniel Hrdy of the Department of Anthropology at Harvard University said that "Mongoloid" hair whether it be "Sioux," "Ifugao" or "Japanese" has the thickest diameter out of all human hair.^[44] Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said Mongoloids evolved hairlessness to keep clean while wearing heavy garments for months without bathing during the Ice Age.^[25]

In 1996, Rebecca Haydenblit of the Hominid Evolutionary Biology Research Group at Cambridge University did a study on the dentition of four pre-Columbian Mesoamerican populations and compared their data to "other Mongoloid populations".^[45] She found that "Tlatilco", "Cuicuilco", "Monte Albán" and "Cholula" populations followed an overall "Sundadont" dental pattern "characteristic of Southeast Asia" rather than a "Sinodont" dental pattern "characteristic of Northeast Asia".^[45]

Robert B. Pickering Professor of Anthropology at the University of Tulsa said the traits of the "Mongoloid" skull are: "long" and "broad" skulls of intermediate "height", "arched" "sagittal contour", "very wide" "facial contour", "high" "face height", "rounded" "orbital opening", "narrow" "nasal opening", "wide, flat" "nasal bones", "sharp" "lower nasal margin", "straight" "facial profile", moderate and white "palate shape", "90%+" "shovel-shaped incisors" and "large, smooth" "general form".^[46]

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said "East Asians" ("Kyushu", "Atayal", "Philippines", "Chinese", "Hokkaido" and "Anyang") and "Amerinds" ("Yaujos", "Santa Cruz" and "Arikara") have the typical "Mongoloid cranial pattern", but other Mongoloids such as "Pacific groups" ("Easter Island", "Mokapu", "Guam" and "Moriori people"), "arctic groups" ("Eskimos" and "Buriats"), "Fuegians" ("Selk’nam", "Ya´mana", "Kawe´skar") and the "Ainu" differ from this by having "larger cranial dimensions over many variables".^[47]

Proto-Mongoloids

This is a Maidu, American Indian man from a publication by anthropologist Franz Boas in 1905.^[48]

This is a Yurok, American Indian, woman from a publication by anthropologist Aleš Hrdlička in 1906.^[49]

Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons physical features of the "Proto-Mongoloid" were characterized as, "a straight-haired type, medium in complexion, jaw protrusion, nose-breadth, and inclining probably to round-headedness".^[50]

Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Sussex said Kanzō Umehara considered the Ainu and Ryukyuans to have "preserved their proto-Mongoloid traits".^[51]

Mark J. Hudson Professor of Anthropology at Nishikyushu University, Kanzaki, Saga, Japan, said Japan was settled by a "Proto-Mongoloid" population in the "Pleistocene" who became the "Jōmon" and their features can be seen in the "Ainu" and "Okinawan" people.^[52] Hudson said that, later, during the "Yayoi period", the "Neo-Mongoloid" type entered Japan.^[52] Hudson said "genetically" Japanese people are "primarily" Neo-Mongoloid with Proto-Mongoloid "admixture".^[52]

Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at University of Pennsylvania said Mongoloid traits emerged from "Transbaikalia", "central and eastern regions of Mongolia", and "several regions of Northern China".^[40] Schurr said that studies of "cranio-facial variation in Mongolia" "suggest" that the "region" of "modern-day" "Mongolians" is the origin of the "Mongoloid racial type".^[40]

Dr. Rukang Wu (Chinese: 吴汝康) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Academia Sinica, China, said that the remains of "Liukiang human fossils" were an "early type of evolving Mongoloid" that indicated "South China" was the "birthplace where the Mongoloid race originated".^[38]

Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said there are two hypotheses on the "origin of Mongoloids".^[22] Lahr said one hypothesis is that Mongoloids originated in "north Asia" due to the "regional continuity" in this region and this population conforming "best" to the standard "Mongoloid features".^[22] Lahr said the other hypothesis is that Mongoloids originate from "Southeast Asian populations" that "expanded from "Africa to Southeast Asia" during the "first half of the Upper Pleistocene" and then traveled to "Australia-Melanesia" and "East Asia".^[22] Lahr said the "morphology" of the "Paleoindian" is consistent with the "proto-Mongoloid definition".^[22]

Anthropologist Arnold Henry Savage Landor described the Ainu as having deep-set eyes and an eye shape typical of Europeans, with a large and prominent browridge, large ears, hairy and prone to baldness, slightly-flattened hook nose with large and broad nostrils, prominent cheek bones, large mouth and thick lips and a long region from nose to mouth and small chin region.^[53]

Neoteny

Main article: Neoteny

Shui-Hsi Miao women (1911)

Java women (1902)

According to Ashley Montagu who taught anthropology at Princeton University, "The Mongoloid skull has proceeded further than in any other people."^[54] "The Mongoloid skull, whether Chinese or Japanese, has been rather more neotenized than the Caucasoid or European."^[54] "The female skull, it will be noted, is more pedomorphic in all human populations than the male skull."^[54] In Ashley Montagu's list of "[n]eotenous structural traits in which Mongoloids... differ from Caucasoids", Montagu lists "Larger brain, larger braincase, broader skull, broader face, flat roof of the nose, inner eye fold, more protuberant eyes, lack of brow ridges, greater delicacy of bones, shallow mandibular fossa, small mastoid processes, stocky build, persistence of thymus gland into adult life, persistence of juvenile form of zygomatic muscle, persistence of juvenile form of superior lip muscle, later eruption of full dentition (except second and third molars), less hairy, fewer sweat glands, fewer hairs per square centimeter [and] long torso".^[54]

According to Clive Bromhall who has a Ph.D. in zoology from Oxford University, "Mongoloid races are explained in terms of being the most extreme pedomorphic humans."^[55]

Richard Grossinger, professor of anthropology at University of Maine at Portland, said "The intuition that advanced human development was pedomorphic rather than recapitulationary and accelerated was disturbing to many Eurocentric nineteenth century anthropologists."^[56] "If juvenilization was the characteristic for advanced status, then it was clear that the Mongoloid races were more deeply fetalized in most respects and thus capable of the greatest development."^[56]

Stephen Oppenheimer of the Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology at Oxford University said "An interesting hypothesis put forward by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould many years ago was that the package of the Mongoloid anatomical changes could be explained by the phenomenon of neoteny, whereby an infantile or childlike body form is preserved in adult life. Neoteny in hominids is still one of the simplest explanations of how we developed a disproportionately large brain so rapidly over the past few million years. The relatively large brain and the forward rotation of the skull on the spinal column, and body hair loss, both characteristic of humans, are found in foetal chimps. Gould suggested a mild intensification of neoteny in Mongoloids, in whom it has been given the name pedomorphy. Such a mechanism is likely to involve only a few controller genes and could therefore happen over a relatively short evolutionary period. It would also explain how the counterintuitive retrousse [turned up at the end] nose and relative loss of facial hair got into the package."^[57] "[D]ecrease unnecessary muscle bulk, less tooth mass, thinner bones and smaller physical size; ...this follows the selective adaptive model of Mongoloid evolution."^[57]

Cold adaption

See also: Allen's rule

"Eskimo Group" by photographer William Dinwiddie (1894)

Eskimo women and one Eskimo man (1922)^[58]

Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto Japan, said Mongoloid features are an adaption to the "cold" of the "Mammoth Steppe".^[25] He mentions the "Lewis waves" of warm blood cyclical vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the peripheral capillaries in Mongoloids as an adaption to the cold.^[25] He lists the short limbs, short noses, flat faces, epicanthic fold and lower surface to mass ratio as further Mongoloid adaptions to cold.^[25]

Takasaki Yuji (Japanese:高崎裕治) of Akita University, Japan,^[59] in the Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science said, "Mongoloid ancestors had evolved over time in cold environments" and the short limbs of the Mongoloid was due to "Allen's ecological rule".^[60]

Professor of anthropology at Trent University Ontario, Canada, Joseph K. So (Chinese: 穌) (198) cited a study by J. T. Steegman (1965) that the "so-called" "cold-adapted Mongoloid face" has been shown in an experiment, using Japanese and European subjects, to not offer greater protection to frostbite.^[61] In explaining Mongoloid cold-adaptiveness, So (穌) cites the work of W. L. Hylander (1977) where Hylander said that in the Eskimo, for example, the reduction of the brow ridge and flatness of the face is due to "internal structural configurations" that are "cold adapted" in the sense that they produce a large vertical bite force necessary to chew frozen seal meat.^[61]

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the "high and narrow nose of Eskimos" and "Neanderthals" is an "adaption to a cold and dry environment", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".^[47]

A.T. Steegman of the Department of Anthropology at State University of New York investigated the assumption that Allen's rule caused the structural configuration of the "Arctic Mongoloid" face.^[62] Steegman did an experiment that involved the survival of rats in the cold.^[62] Steegman found the rats with narrow nasal passages, broader faces, shorter tails and shorter legs survived the best in the cold.^[62] Steegman paralleled his findings with the "Arctic Mongoloids", particularly the "Eskimo" and "Aleut," by claiming these "Arctic Mongoloids" have similar features in accordance with Allen's rule: a narrow nasal passage, relatively large heads, long to round heads, large jaws, relatively large bodies, and short limbs.^[62]

Kenneth L. Beals of the Department of Anthropology at Oregon State University noted that the indigenous people of the Americas have cephalic indexes that are an exception to Allen's rule, since the indigenous people of the hot climates of North and South America have cold-adapted, high cephalic indexes.^[63] Beals explanation is that these peoples have not yet evolved the appropriate cephalic index for their climate, being, comparatively, only recently descended from the cold-adapted "Arctic Mongoloid".^[63]

Genetic research

See also: Asian people#Asian DNA

Genetic Distances and Effective Divergence Times Between The Three Major Races of Man (3) by Masatoshi Nei (Japanese: 根井正利), Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University[64]
Comparison	Proteins (62 loci)	Blood groups (23 loci)	Total (85 loci)	Effective divergence time (years)
Caucasoid/Mongoloid	0.011	0.043	0.019	41,000 ± 15,000
Caucasoid/Negroid	0.030	0.038	0.032	113,000 ± 34,000
Negroid/Mongoloid	0.031	0.096	0.047	116,000 ± 34,000

This genetic distance map made in 2002 is an estimate of 18 world human groups by a neighbour-joining method based on 23 kinds of genetic information. It was made by Saitou Naruya (Japanese:斎藤成也) professor at the (Japanese) National Institute for Genetics.^[65] Saitou et al. said the Pan-Mongoloid grouping includes the Australoid, Amerindian and Asian Mongoloid groups.^[66]

This is a genetic distance map made by geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University that shows the "Mongoloid group" among others.^[20]

This map is a reproduction of a map made by Naruya Saitou (Japanese: 斎藤成也) professor at the (Japanese) National Institute for Genetics. It shows the human migration path out of Africa.^[65] Saitou et al. said the Pan-Mongoloid grouping includes the Australoid, Amerindian and Asian Mongoloid groups.^[66]

This is a reproduction of a dendogram made by enzymologist Naropantul Appaji Rao (Hindi:अप्पाजी राव), Emeritus Scientist at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. Based on "29 genetic loci", Rao said that "Indians [of India] are genetically equidistant from Caucasoids and Mongoloids".^[67]

In 1994, geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University divided a "principal coordinant" map of "42 Asian populations" into three groupings: "Asian Caucasoids", "Northeast and East Asian" and "Southeast Asian".^[20] Along "Southeast Asia", Cavalli-Sforza said there is a "separation between northern and southern Mongoloids".^[20] To the West, Cavalli-Sforza said there is an "approximate boundary" between "Caucasoids" and "Mongoloids" from the "Urals" to "the eastern part of India".^[20] Along this boundary there has been "hybridization", causing a "Caucasoid-Mongoloid gradient".^[20] More specifically, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said were in the "Northeast and East Asian" cluster were the "Koryak", "Chukchi", "Reindeer Chukchi", "Nganasan" "Samoyed", "N. Tungus", "Nentsy" "N. Chinese", "Tibetan", "Bhutanese", "Ainu", "Mongol", "Japanese" and "Korean".^[20] Moving south, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said were in the "Southeast Asian" cluster were the "Indonesian", "Malaysian", "Taiwan aborigines", "Viet Muong", "Thai", "Philippine", "S. Chinese", "Balinese" and "Gurkha".^[20] Moving off the coast, Cavalli-Sforza said there are "Australoid" and "Negrito" peoples, but also that the "Polynesians" are a "diluted Mongoloid type", the Negritos of the "Andaman Islands" and "Semang" Negritos have a "high frequency of the Mongoloid inner epicanthic eyefold" and that among Australoid "Micronesians" "some individuals look more Mongoloid".^[20] Moving to the Americas, Cavalli-Sforza said the "Eskimos and Aleuts" derived from the "Siberian Mongoloids" and came after the "American Indians" who are both "Mongoloid in general" and "uniform racially".^[20]

In 2008, biochemist Boris Abramovich Malyarchuk (Russian: Борис Абрамович Малярчук) et al. of the Institute of Biological Problems of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences, Magadan, Russia, used a sample (n=279) of Czech individuals to determine the frequency of "Mongoloid" "mtDNA lineages".^[68] Malyarchuk found Czech mtDNA lineages were typical of "Slavic populations" with "1.8%" Mongoloid mtDNA lineage.^[68] Malyarchuk added that "Slavic populations" "almost always" contain Mongoloid mtDNA lineage.^[68] Malyarchuk said the Mongoloid component of Slavic people was partially added before the split of "Balto-Slavics" in 2,000-3,000 BCE with additional Mongoloid mixture occurring among Slavics in the last 4,000 years.^[68] Malyarchuk said the "Russian population" was developed by the "assimilation of the indigenous pre-Slavic population of Eastern Europe by true Slavs" with additional "assimilation of Finno-Ugric populations" and "long-lasting" interactions with the populations of "Siberia" and "Central Asia".^[68] Malyarchuk said that other Slavs "Mongoloid component" was increased during the waves of migration from "steppe populations (Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Mongols)", especially the decay of the "Avar Khaganate".^[68]

In 1999, Vladimir Orekhov (Russian: Владимир Орехов) et al. of the Institute of General Genetics, Moscow, Russia, found that there is evidence for "influence of Mongoloid populations on the ethnogenesis of Russians" due to the presence of "mytotypes" 26, 33, and 47 of "Mongoloid haplogroup C" in the Russian population as well as evidence for "Finno-Ugric populations in the ethnogenesis of Eastern Slavs" due to the presence of "Finno-Ugric mitotype (mitotype 31)" in the Russian population, but he found that that Russian "mtDNA pools" differed by "Russian regions" with Russians of the "Eastern-European plain" "close" to "European ethnic groups".^[69]

In 2010, Alexander Shtrunov (Russian: Александр Штрунов) who published in the Russian Journal of Genetics said the introduction of haplogroup Nc1 in "Eastern Europe" was spread by people with a "Uraloid appearance" with both "Mongoloid and Caucasoid features" in the "Mesolithic" period, forming the "gradual appearance of mixed anthropological types" with the pre-existing "Caucasoid" "Paleo-European population of Northern Europe" who were carriers of the "Nordic haplogroup I1a".^[70]

Atsushi Tajima (Japanese: 田嶋敦) et al. of Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan, found evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining Y chromosome lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Southeast Asians, and Japanese.^[71]

In 1997, Masatoshi Nei (Japanese: 根井正利), Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University, said "clusters" of "genetic distances" conform to the "customary" "three major races of man, namely, Negroids, Caucasoids and Mongoloids".^[72] Moreover, Nei said that "Mongoloid populations irrespective of north and south" show "small genetic distances from any populations in Oceania and Americas".^[72] Nei said the "Northern Mongoloid" included the "Evens", "Buryat", "Hui", "Mongolian", "Tibetan", "Japanese", "Ainu", "Northern Chinese" and "Korean".^[72] In the "Southern Mongoloid", Nei included the "Dong", "Zhuang", "Southern Chinese", "Taiwanese-aborigines", "Thai", "Indonesian" and "Filipino".^[72] Based on genetic data, Nei said the "Amerindians" descend from two populations: an original "Northeast Asians" migration which became the "Paleo-Indian" and a later migration which became both the "Na-Dene" and "Eskimos".^[72] Based on the genetic data, Nei said "Southeast Asian Mongoloids" are closer to the "Micronesian" and "Polynesian" than to the "Papuan" and "Australian".^[72] In 1993, Nei said the "Mongoloids" were contained within a larger genetic grouping called the "Greater Asians" or "Greater Mongoloids"^[72] which also included "Pacific Islanders" and "Australopapuans".^[73] In the "Australopapuan" grouping, Nei included "Dravidians", "Andamanese", "Australian", "Papuan" and "Philippine Negritos".^[73] Since Nei found Australopapuans were "most closely related to East Asians", Nei offered an explanation for their peculiar traits. Nei rejected the hypothesis that Australopapuans have traits of "black Africans" due to "convergent-evolution", since he estimated it would have taken far longer for them to have re-evolved "frizzled-hair".^[73] Nei supported the other hypothesis put forward by Chris B. Stringer of the Paleontology Department of the National History Museum that there were two populations and that the original "African" population had "absorbed most of its gene pool from the Mongoloid group".^[73]

Satoshi Horai (Japanese: 宝来聡) of the Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Shizouka, Japan, said "phylogenetic analysis" indicated that the there are "two distinct groups" of "Mongoloids" - one which early on "diverged" from "Negroids" and another that "diverged" from "Caucasoids" later.^[74] Horai said Mongoloid distribution corresponds to "North and South America, Oceania, Southeast Asia, east Asia, and Siberia".^[74]

Principal components plot for Asian populations.

A study by the The HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium in 2009 found that East Asian and South-East Asian populations clustered together, and suggested a common origin for these populations. At the same time they observed a broad discontinuity between this cluster and South Asia, commenting "most of the Indian populations showed evidence of shared ancestry with European populations". It was noted that "genetic ancestry is strongly correlated with linguistic affiliations as well as geography".

In 2010, Sung-Soo Hung et al. (Korean:윤승수) of the Department of Biology at Seoul National University found that Mongoloids were relatively homogenous in 9-bp deletion type of the mtDNA COM/ tRNA^Lys intergenic region^[75]

"Estimates of the Number of Nucleotide Differences per Site Both Among (dxy) and within (dx or dy) Each of the Three Races, and Net Nucleotide Differences (d) among the Races" made by Satoshi Horai (Japanese:宝来聡) of the Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Shizouka, Japan.[74]
	Caucasoid (N=20)	Mongoloid (N=71)	Negroid (N=10)
Caucasoid	0.0094	0.0012	0.0028
Mongoloid	0.0128	0.0137	0.0015
Negroid	0.0194	0.0203	0.0238

Criticism

Dr. George W. Gill is a professor of anthropology at the University of Wyoming and Dennis O'Neil professor of anthropology at Palomar College said that "Mongoloid" concept originated with a now disputed typological method of racial classification.^[76][77] All the -oid racial terms (e.g. Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Negroid, etc.) are now often controversial in both technical and non-technical contexts and may sometimes give offense no matter how they are used.^[78]

According to Ward O. Conner who wrote a book about John Langson Down, since people with Down syndrome may have epicanthic folds, Down syndrome was widely called "Mongol" or "Mongoloid Idiocy".^[79] John Langdon Down, for whom the syndrome was named, said in his book Observations on the Ethnic Classification of Idiots (1866) that the Mongol-like features represented an evolutionary degeneration when manifested in Caucasoids.^{[citation needed]} In slang usage the term came to be used as an insult. A shortened version of the term, mong or mongo, is also used in the United Kingdom, mainly Scotland.^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Asian people
• Craniofacial anthropometry
• Eurasian (mixed ancestry)

References

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