Last Glacial Maximum

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the Würm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years.

At this time, ice sheets covered the whole of Iceland and all but the southern extremity of the British Isles. Northern Europe was largely covered, the southern boundary passing through Germany and Poland, but not quite joined to the British ice sheet. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and eastward to occupy the northern half of the West Siberian Plain, ending at the Taymyr Peninsula. In North America, the ice covered essentially all of Canada and extended roughly to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, and eastward to New York City.

In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered Chile and western Argentina north to about 41 degrees south. Ice sheets also covered Tibet (scientists continue to debate the extent to which the Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice), Baltistan, Ladakh and the Andean altiplano. In Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, especially in the Atlas, the Bale Mountains, and New Guinea.

The Ob and Yenisei Rivers had their flows stopped by the vast ice sheets, creating huge pluvial lakes.

Permafrost covered Europe south of the ice sheet down to present-day Szeged and Asia down to Beijing. In North America, latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of the ice sheets except at high elevations.

The Indonesian islands as far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland. Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait. Sathiamurthy, E. and Voris, H. K. 2006. [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/research_collections/zoology/zoo_sites/seamaps/mapindex1.htm Pleistocene Sea Level Maps for the Sunda Shelf.] The Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois.] Australia and New Guinea were connected forming Sahulland. Between Sundaland and Sahulland, Wallacea remained islands, though the number and width of water gaps between the two continents were considerably smaller.

Glacial climate

The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation (snow). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe, East Asia and parts of Alaska remained "unglaciated" except at higher elevations. This difference was caused by the fact that the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them. These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to the shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large "east-west" mountain ranges were secondary factors preventing continental glaciation in Asia.

In warmer regions of the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel, rainfall could be diminished by up to ninety percent from present, with floras diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few "refugia" were surrounded by tropical grassland. The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna, and it is probable that the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on the east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact - probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions.

Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in the American West, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir. In Australia, shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, whilst the Chaco and Pampas in South America became similarly dry. Present-day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover, notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, and southern China, where open woodland became dominant due to drier conditions. In northern China - unglaciated despite its cold climate - a mixture of grassland and tundra prevailed, and even here, the northern limit of tree growth was at least twenty degrees further south than today.

In the period immediately "before" the Last Glacial Maximum, many areas that became completely barren desert were wetter than they are today, notably in southern Australia where Aboriginal occupation is believed to coincide with a wet period between 40,000 and 60,000 years BP (Before Present, a formal measurement of uncalibrated radiocarbon years, counted from 1950 AD).

References

Further reading

*Ehlers, J., and P.L. Gibbard, 2004a, "Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 2: Part II North America." Elsevier, Amsterdam. ISBN 0-444-51462-7
*Ehlers, J., and P L. Gibbard, 2004b, "Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 3: Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica. " ISBN 0-444-51593-3
*Gillespie, A.R., S.C. Porter, and B.F. Atwater, 2004, "The Quaternary Period in the United States. " Developments in Quaternary Science no. 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-0-444-51471-4
*Mangerud, J., J. Ehlers, and P. Gibbard, 2004, "Quaternary Glaciations : Extent and Chronology 1: Part I Europe." Elsevier, Amsterdam. ISBN 0-444-51462-7
*Sibrava, V., Bowen, D.Q, and Richmond, G.M., 1986, "Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, Quaternary Science Reviews." vol. 5, pp. 1-514.

External links

*Adams, J.M., 1997, [http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/nerc.html "Global land environments since the last interglacial."] Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN. (Atlas of Palaeovegetation: Preliminary land ecosystem maps of the world since the Last Glacial Maximum.)
*BRITICE, 2004, [http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/geography/staff/clark_chris/britice.html "Map and GIS database of glacial landforms and features related to the last British Ice Sheet."] Department of Geology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
*Dyke, A.S., A. Moore, and L. Robertson, 2003, [http://geopub.nrcan.gc.ca/moreinfo_e.php?id=214399 "Deglaciation of North America."] Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 1574. (Thirty-two digital maps at 1:7 000 000 scale with accompanying digital chronological database and one poster (two sheets) with full map series.)
*Manley, W., and D. Kuaffman. nd, [http://instaar.colorado.edu/QGISL/ak_paleoglacier_atlas/index.html "Alaska PaleoGlacier Atlas: A Geospatial Compilation of Pleistocene Glacier Extents."] INSTAAR, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.
*Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) [http://pmip.lsce.ipsl.fr/ PMIP Web Site] and [http://pmip.lsce.ipsl.fr/publications/pub21k.shtml 'Publications : Last Glacial Maximum.]
*Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase II (PMIP2) [http://pmip2.lsce.ipsl.fr/ "PMIP2 Home page"] and [http://pmip2.lsce.ipsl.fr/ PMIP 2 Publications.]

See also

*Glacial period
*Last glacial period
*Ice age
*
*Sea level rise
*Timeline of glaciation