History of coffee

A coffee bearer, from the Ottoman quarters in Cairo, Egypt in the year 1857.

The history of coffee goes at least as far back as the thirteenth century. It has been believed that Ethiopian ancestors of today's Oromo people were the first to discover and recognize the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant.^[1] The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 AD and is probably apocryphal.^[2] From Ethiopia, coffee was said to have spread to Egypt and Yemen.^[3] The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen.^[1] By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.^[4]

Origins

Etymology

The word "coffee" entered English in 1598 via Dutch koffie,^[5] borrowed from Turkish kahve, in turn borrowed from Arabic qahwa, a truncation of qahhwat al-bun 'wine of the bean'. A possible origin of the name is the Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia, where the coffee plant originated; its name there is bunn or bunna.

First uses

There are several legendary accounts of the origin of the drink itself. One account involves the Yemenite Sufi mystic Ghothul Akbar Nooruddin Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili.^[6] When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes, he observed birds of unusual vitality, and, upon trying the berries that the birds had been eating, experienced the same vitality.

Other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheik Abou'l Hasan Schadheli's disciple, Omar. According to the ancient chronicle (preserved in the Abd-Al-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was once exiled from Mocha to a desert cave near Ousab. Starving, Omar chewed berries from nearby shrubery, but found them to be bitter. He tried roasting the beans to improve the flavor, but they became hard. He then tried boiling them to soften the bean, which resulted in a fragrant brown liquid. Upon drinking the liquid Omar was revitalized and sustained for days. As stories of this "miracle drug" reached Mocha, Omar was asked to return and was made a saint. ^[7]

Another story involves a goat-herd, Kaldi, who, noticing the energizing effects when his flock nibbled on the bright red berries of a certain bush, chewed on the fruit himself. His exhilaration prompted him to bring the berries to a Muslim holy man in a nearby monastery. But the holy man disapproved of their use and threw them into the fire, from which an enticing aroma billowed and the holy men came. The roasted beans were quickly raked from the embers, ground up, and dissolved in hot water, yielding the world's first cup of coffee. The Ethiopian ancestors of today's Oromo tribe, were the first to have recognized the energizing effect of the native coffee plant.^[2] Studies of genetic diversity have been performed on Coffea arabica varieties, found to be of low diversity but which retained some residual heterozygosity from ancestral materials, and closely related diploid species Coffea canephora and C. liberica;^[8] however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant, or known about it there earlier than the seventeenth century.^[2]

Arab world and spread to Europe

The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.^[2] From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa,^[3] and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.^[4]

Syrian Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930

Palestinian women grinding coffee, 1905

The earliest mention of coffee noted by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour^[9] is a reference to bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West,^[10] but more definite information on the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several centuries later.

The most important of the early writers on coffee was Abd al-Qadir al-Jaziri, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa.^[11] He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani (d. 1470), mufti of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee (circa 1454).

“

He found that among its properties was that it drove away fatigue and lethargy, and brought to the body a certain sprightliness and vigour.[2]

”

Coffee's usefulness in driving away sleep made it popular among Sufis, who used it to keep themselves alert during their nighttime devotions. A translation^[12] traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul.

Coffee beans were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the bean.^[13] The first coffeehouse opened in Istanbul in 1554.^[14] Coffee was at first not well received. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca^{[citation needed]}. However, the popularity of the drink led these bans to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Selim I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-İmadi issuing a celebrated fatwa allowing the consumption of coffee.^[15] In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked.^[16]

Similarly, coffee was banned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 18th century.^[17] However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886; according to Richard Pankhurst, "this was largely due to [Emperor] Menilek, who himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did much to dispel the belief of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink."^[18]

Europe

Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692

Coffee was noted in Ottoman Aleppo by the German physician botanist Leonhard Rauwolf, the first European to mention it, as chaube, in 1573; Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from other European travellers.^[19]

The vibrant trade between Venice and the Muslims in North Africa, Egypt, and the East brought a large variety of African goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in Venice, charging them heavily for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after controversy over whether it was acceptable for Catholics to consume was settled in its favor by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the drink.^[20] The first European coffee house (apart from those in the Ottoman Empire, mentioned above) was opened in Venice in 1645.^[4]

Born in 1767, Franco Anglo was the son of a wealthy Italian land owner & farmer. In 1809 (now a wealthy Italian Merchant in his own right, living in England) Franco travelled to Martinique in search of the world's finest coffee beans. Once found, he continued his search onto Port Antonio, Jamaica, where we venture into the Blue Mountain region. Then onto Haiti, Cuba, Brazil, Columbia, Argentina, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Nicaragua where he gathered some of the finest beans. After travelling back to England to trade is fine collection, Franco then journeyed to the Island of La Reunion (located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar in 1814. Then onto Ethiopia and Yemen, where he learnt aged old techniques of growing & roasting coffee. In 1819, Franco decided to travel to Indonesia and Vietnam, where his collection of the rarest coffee beans made him one of the wealthiest and respected coffee traders of his time. Franco's dedication to continue his search around the world was never fully realised, when he suddenly died on board a ship bound for South America in 1826.^{[citation needed]}

England

Largely through the efforts of the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, coffee became available in England no later than the 16th century according to Leonhard Rauwolf's 1583 account. The first coffeehouse in England was opened in St. Michael's Alley in Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosée, the servant of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the establishment. The Grand Cafe in Oxford is alleged^[who?] to be the first Coffee House in England, opened in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob. It is still open today, but has since become a popular Wine Bar. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses throughout England.^[21] Popularity of coffeehouses spread rapidly in Europe, and later, America.

The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Germany women frequented them, but in England they were banned.^[22] Many believed coffee to have several medicinal properties in this period. For example, a 1661 tract entitled "A character of coffee and coffee-houses", written by one "M.P.", lists some of these perceived benefits:

“

'Tis extolled for drying up the Crudities of the Stomack, and for expelling Fumes out of the Head. Excellent Berry! which can cleanse the English-man's Stomak of Flegm, and expel Giddinesse out of his Head.

”

Not everyone was in favour of this new commodity, however. For example, the anonymous 1674 "Women's Petition Against Coffee" declared:

“

...the Excessive Use of that Newfangled, Abominable, Heathenish Liquor called COFFEE [...] has [...] Eunucht our Husbands, and Crippled our more kind Gallants, that they are become as Impotent, as Age.[2]

”

France

Antoine Galland (1646–1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, tea and chocolate: "We are indebted to these great [Arab] physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as sugar, tea, and chocolate." Galland reported that he was informed by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of King Louis XIV of France, that coffee was brought to Paris by a certain Mr. Thevenot, who had travelled through the East. On his return to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix. However, the major spread of the popularity of this beverage in Paris was soon to come. In 1669, Soleiman Agha, Ambassador from Sultan Mehmed IV, arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large quantity of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their French and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians.

Melange in Vienna

Austria

The real first coffeehouse in Austria opened in Vienna in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna, by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The officer who received the coffee beans, Polish military officer of Ukrainian origin Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, opened the coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and milk to the coffee. Until recently, this was celebrated in Viennese coffeehouses by hanging a picture of Kulczycki in the window. Melange is the typical Viennese coffee, which comes mixed with hot foamed milk and a glass of water.

Netherlands

The race among Europeans to make off with some live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the Dutch in 1616. Pieter van der Broecke, a Dutch merchant, obtained some of the closely guarded coffee bushes from Mocha, Ethiopia in 1616. He took them back to Amsterdam and found a home for them in the Botanical gardens, where they began to thrive. This apparently minor event received little publicity, but was to have a major impact on the history of coffee. The beans that van der Broecke stole from Mocha forty years earlier adjusted well to conditions in the greenhouses at the Amsterdam Botanical Garden and produced numerous healthy coffee bushes named Coffea Arabica. In 1658 the Dutch first used them to begin coffee cultivation in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and later in southern India. They abandoned the cultivation to focus on their Javanese plantations because they didn't want to oversupply the market and drop the price.

Within a few years the Dutch colonies (Java in Asia, Suriname in the Americas) had become the main suppliers of coffee to Europe.

India

The first record of coffee growing in India is following the introduction of coffee beans from Yemen by Baba Budan to the hills of Chikmagalur in 1670.^[23] Since then coffee plantations have become established in the region, extending south to Kodagu.

Americas

Gabriel de Clieu brought coffee seedlings to Martinique in the Caribbean circa 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 years later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee cultivation to Haiti, Mexico and other islands of the Caribbean. The territory of San Domingo (now Haiti) saw coffee cultivated from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the world's coffee. The French colonial plantations relied heavily on African slave laborers. However, the dreadful conditions that the slaves worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to follow Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never fully recovered there.^[24]

Coffee also found its way to the island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean known as the Isle of Bourbon. The plant produced smaller beans and was deemed a different variety of Arabica known as var. Bourbon. The Santos coffee of Brazil and the Oaxaca coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree. Circa 1727, the King of Portugal sent Francisco de Mello Palheta to French Guinea to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds yet he captivated the French Governor's wife and she in turn, sent him enough seeds and shoots which would commence the coffee industry of Brazil. In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey.^[25]

Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its cultivation didn't gather momentum until independence in 1822.^[26] After this time, massive tracts of rainforest were cleared first from the vicinity of Rio and later São Paulo for coffee plantations.^[27]

Cultivation was taken up by many countries in the latter half of the 19th century, and almost all involved the large-scale displacement and exploitation of the indigenous Indian people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and bloody suppression of peasants.^[28] The notable exception was Costa Rica, where lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries.^[29]

In the 1930s Brazil took off as major producer of coffee leaving behind their early caffeinate yerba mate industry; which Argentina then took over.^[30]

Production

The first step in Europeans' wresting the means of production was effected by Nicolaes Witsen, the enterprising burgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the Dutch East India Company who urged Joan van Hoorn, the Dutch governor at Batavia that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of Mocha in Yemen, the source of Europe's supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies;^[31] the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europe's demand with "Java coffee" by 1719.^[32] Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in Ceylon, Sumatra and other Sunda islands.^[33] Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the Hortus Botanicus of Leiden, whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Utrecht presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the Jardin du Roi, predecessor of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris.

The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by Captain Gabriel des Clieux, who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist Antoine de Jussieu, who was loath to disfigure the king's coffee tree.^[34] Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces jealous of the Batavian trade.^[35] Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue in addition to Martinique, where a blight had struck the cacao plantations, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a space of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded.

The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggled seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken from Yemen to Batavia,^[36] from French Guiana. By the 1800s, Brazil's harvests would turn coffee from an elite indulgence to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on slave labor from Africa for the viability of the plantations until the abolition of slavery in 1888. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of tobacco smoking all over the continent during the course of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).

For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as Colombia,^[37] Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia and Vietnam, now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995.^[38] Nearly all of the coffee grown there is Robusta.^[39]

Despite the origins of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the Twentieth Century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the environs of Harar in the northeast. The Kingdom of Kaffa, home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of Gambela, and greatly increased afterwards: 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927-8 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port.^[40] Coffee plantations were also developed in Arsi Province at the same time, and were eventually exported by means of the Addis Ababa - Djibouti Railway. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of "Harari" coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936.^[41]

Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of 500 acres (2.0 km²) began to be developed in an area between northern New South Wales and Cooktown. Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981.^[42]

Coffee and slavery

Slavery

Between 1511 and 1886 over 1 million slaves were imported from Africa to Cuba in order to work their crops. Although the production and selling of sugar in the country began the slave holding, the presence of coffee played an equally important role in establishing slavery in Cuba. When coffee reached Cuba, farmers welcomed it; coffee required less land to grow and its machinery needs were minimal, making it immediately popular. The slaveholding during this time was managed by a prison-like atmosphere creating unrest and inevitable rebellions against the wealthy that enslaved them. Coffee production in Cuba was short lived due to competition with Brazilian coffee.^[43]

In some areas of Brazil in the 1870s, some coffee holders held about 10 slaves each, depending on the size of the plantation. Slavery did not change throughout the 1900s. Slaveholdings increased, with the increased popularity of coffee and the expansion of coffee production. ^[44]

Coffee is mostly grown in the developing world. Coffee cultivation has been accused of contributing to child labour.^[45]

Coffee entered the Caribbean in the early eighteenth century and flourished. Its cultivation has been connected to the slave trade, slave labor, and harsh conditions on plantations.^[46]

See also

• Economics of coffee
• International Coffee Agreement

• Anacafé
• Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia
• National Coffee Association
• Specialty Coffee Association of America

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Weinberg, pp 3–4
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} The world of caffeine. Routledge. 2001. pp. Page 3–4. ISBN 9780415927239. http://books.google.com/books?id=Qyz5CnOaH9oC&pg=PA3&dq=coffee+goat+ethiopia+Kaldi&lr=&ei=paxHStuDJ4XuzATj97hf. 
3. ^ ^{a b} John K. Francis. "Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE". Factsheet of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Coffea%20arabica.pdf#search=%22%22Coffea%20Arabica%22%20native%22. Retrieved 2007-07-27. 
4. ^ ^{a b c} Meyers, Hannah (2005-03-07). ""Suave Molecules of Mocha" -- Coffee, Chemistry, and Civilization". http://www.newpartisan.com/home/suave-molecules-of-mocha-coffee-chemistry-and-civilization.html. Retrieved 2007-02-03. 
5. ^ OED, s.v. "Coffee".
6. ^ http://www.shazuli.com/discovery-of-coffee/
7. ^ Ukers, William (1935). All About Coffee. New York: The Tea & Coffee Trade Journal Company. pp. 9–10. 
8. ^ L. Steiger, C. Nagal et al., "AFLP analysis of genetic diversity within and among Coffea arabica", Theor Appl Genet. 105.2-3 (August 2002:209-215.
9. ^ Dufour, Traitez nouveaux et curieux du café, du thé et du chocolat (Lyon, 1684, etc).
10. ^ In later editions Dufour casts doubt on the identity of Rhazes' bunchum, which is shared by Edward Forbes Robinson, The Early History of Coffee Houses in England (London, 1893), noted by Ukers 1922:
11. ^ The 19th-century orientalist Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy edited the first two chapters of al-Jaziri's manuscript and included it in the second edition of his Chrestomathie Arabe (Paris, 1826, 3 vols.). Antoine Galland's De l'origine et du progrès du Café (1699) was recently reissued (Paris: Editions La Bibliothèque, 1992).
12. ^ Al-Jaziri's manuscript work is of considerable interest with regards to the history of coffee in Europe as well. A copy reached the French royal library, where it was translated in part by Antoine Galland as De l'origine et du progrès du Café.
13. ^ Ukers 1922:5, and all other sources
14. ^ Cemal Kafadar, "A History of Coffee", Economic History Congress XIII (Buenos Aires, 2002) full text
15. ^ Schneider, Irene (2001). "Ebussuud". In Michael Stolleis (ed.) (in German). Juristen: ein biographisches Lexikon; von der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert (2nd edition ed.). München: Beck. p. 193. ISBN 3406459579. 
16. ^ J. E. Hanauer (1907). "About Coffee". Folk-lore of the Holy Land. p. 291. "(...) [All] the coffee-houses [were] closed, and their keepers pelted with the sherds of their pots and cups. This was in 1524, but by an order of Selìm I., the decrees of the learned were reversed, the disturbances in Egypt quieted, the drinking of coffee declared perfectly orthodox" 
17. ^ Merid W. Aregay, "The Early History of Ethiopia's Coffee Trade and the Rise of Shawa", in The Journal of American History, Vol. 29, No. 1, Special Issue in Honour of Roland Oliver. (1988), p. 20
18. ^ Richard Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University, 1968), p. 198
19. ^ William Harrison Ukers, All About Coffee :2.
20. ^ http://www.professorshouse.com/food-beverage/beverages/coffee-facts-statistics.aspx Coffee Facts and Statistics
21. ^ "JavaScript Detector". Nestleprofessional.com. http://www.nestleprofessional.com/uk/en/SiteArticles/Pages/History_of_Coffee.aspx. Retrieved 2009-12-31. 
22. ^ "Coffee History". Archived from the original on September 15, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070915014128/http://www.humboldtcoffee.com/History.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-27. 
23. ^ http://www.chickmagalur.nic.in/htmls/tour_bbgiri.htm
24. ^ Pendergrast, p. 16
25. ^ Kenneth Davids, Coffee: a guide to buying, brewing, and enjoying, 2001, ISBN 031224665X, p. 13.
26. ^ Pendergrast, p. 19
27. ^ Pendergrast, pp. 20-24
28. ^ Pendergrast, pp. 33-34
29. ^ Pendergrast, pp. 35-36
30. ^ Folch, Christine. Stimulating Consumption: Yerba Mate Myths, Markets, and Meanings from Conquest to Present. Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History, 2010.
31. ^ William Law, The History of Coffee, including a chapter on chicory (London) 1850:14, on the authority of Hermann Boerhaave, director of the botanical garden at Leiden.
32. ^ E. M. Jacobs, Merchant in Asia: the trade of the Dutch East India Company during the "Coffee from Mocha and the highlands of Batavia" :260ff describes the introduction of coffee plantations in detail
33. ^ Henry Mills Alden, "A Cup of coffee", Harper's new monthly magazine 44 (1872:241).
34. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2008:530.
35. ^ The story appeared in J.J.C. Goube, Histoire du duché de Normandie (1815, vol. III:191), of which a translated excerpt was contributed to The Gentleman's Magazine (February 1840:136) "Generosity of M. Desclieux— The Coffee-tree at Martinique". The date of this event is variously reported: in Goube it is 1726.
36. ^ "Des Clieux's cutting was the ancestor of all the coffee trees of Martinique, the West Indies, Brazil and Colombia, and some of them went back across the Atlantic to become a source of income to the African colonies that have now gained their independence, in particular the Ivory Coast and Cameroon" (Toussaint-Samat 2008:531).
37. ^ Marco Palacios (2002). Coffee in Colombia, 1850–1970: An Economic, Social and Political History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521528593. 
38. ^ Vietnam: Silent Global Coffee Power by Alex Scofield
39. ^ International Coffee Organization. Total Production of Exporting Countries: Crop Years 2000/01 to 2005/06. [1]. Retrieved December 8, 2006.
40. ^ Pankhurst, Economic History, p. 202
41. ^ Pankhurst, Economic History, p. 203
42. ^ "Australian Coffee History". http://www.coffeeworks.com.au/info/australian_coffee_history.php. Retrieved 2011-03-21. 
43. ^ Singleton, Theresa. "Slavery and spatial dialectics on Cuban coffee plantations."kwuehowheohwoeowheweohwe Latin American Studies. Syracuse University, n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2011. www.latinamericanstudies.org/slavery/cuban-cofee-plantation.pdf.
44. ^ Marcondes, R. (2005). Small and Medium Slaveholdings in the Coffee Economy of the Vale do Paraíba, Province of São Paulo. Hispanic American Historical Review, 85(2), 259-281. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
45. ^ Singleton, Theresa. "Slavery and spatial dialectics on Cuban coffee plantations." Latin American Studies. Syracuse University, n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2011. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/slavery/cuban-cofee-plantation.pdf
46. ^ Wild, A. (2005). Slavery and the Coffee Colonies. Coffee: a dark history (pp. 118-148). New York: W.W. Norton.

References

• The Blessed Bean - history of coffee. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
• 1949 Encyclopædia Britannica. Otis, McAllister & Co. 1954
• Birsel, Salâh. - Kahveler kitabı. - 1. baskı. - Istanbul : Koza Yayınları, 1975. - (Olaylar-belgeler-anılar ; 8).
• Burn, Jacob Henry, d. (1869). A descriptive catalogue of the London traders, tavern, and coffee-house toke. 2nd ed. London.
• Chew, Samual C (1974). The Crescent and the Rose. Oxford University Press, New York.
• Darby, M. (1983) The Islamic Perspective, An aspect of British Architecture and Design in the 19th century. Leighton House Gallery, London.
• Davids, Kenneth (1991). Coffee.
• Ellis, Aytoun (1956). The Penny Universities : A History of the Coffee-Houses. London : Secker & Warburg.
• Galland, Antoine (1699) De l'origine et du progrez du café, Éd. originale J. Cavelier Paris, 1992- La Bibliothèque, coll. L'Écrivain Voyageur
• Illy, Francesco & Riccardo (1989). From Coffee to Espresso
• Ibn al-Imād al-Hanbali (d.1089 AH/1679 AD). Shadharāt al-dhahab fi akhbār man dhahab, al-Juz' 8. Cairo, 1931.
• Pendergrast, Mark (2001) [1999]. Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World. London: Texere. ISBN 1-58799-088-1. 
• Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bealer, Bonnie K. (2001). The world of caffeine. Routledge. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0415927234. http://books.google.com/books?id=Qyz5CnOaH9oC&pg=PA3&dq=coffee+goat+ethiopia+Kaldi&lr=&ei=paxHStuDJ4XuzATj97hf. 
• Liss, David. The Coffee Trader (2003). A well-researched historical novel about (among other things) the beginnings of the coffee business in 17th century Amsterdam. Includes extensive bibliography.