Long-term effects of alcohol

Long-term effects of alcohol
Disability-adjusted life year for alcohol use disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.
  no data
  less than 50
  50-150
  150-250
  250-350
  350-450
  450-550
  550-650
  650-750
  750-850
  850-950
  950-1050
  more than 1050
Total recorded alcohol per capita consumption (15+), in litres of pure alcohol[1]
Most significant of the possible long-term effects of ethanol. Additionally, in pregnant women, it causes fetal alcohol syndrome.

The long term effects of alcohol range from possible health benefits for low levels of alcohol consumption to severe detrimental effects in cases of chronic alcohol abuse. There is a strong correlation between 'high levels' [ See mayo Clinic for details] of alcohol consumption and an increased risk of developing alcoholism, cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease, and cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse.[2][3] Long-term use of alcohol in excessive quantities is capable of damaging nearly every organ and system in the body.[4] The developing adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of alcohol.[5]

Historically doctors have promoted alcohol for its perceived health benefits and most recently for protection against coronary heart disease. There is evidence of cardiovascular benefits from drinking 1 - 2 drinks per day; however, the health benefits from moderate intake of alcohol are controversial. Alcohol should be regarded as a recreational drug with potentially serious adverse effects on health and it is not recommended for cardio-protection in the place of safer and proven traditional methods such as exercise, a balanced diet, and pharmacotherapy.[6][7]

Some experts argue that the benefits of moderate alcohol consumption may be outweighed by other increased risks, including those of injuries, violence, fetal damage, certain forms of cancer, liver disease and hypertension.[8] As the apparent health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption are limited for populations at low risk of heart disease, other experts urge caution because of the possibility that recommending moderate alcohol consumption may lead to an increased risk of alcohol abuse.[9]

Contents

Scientific studies

Background

The adverse effects of long-term excessive use of alcohol are close to those seen with other sedative-hypnotics (apart from organ toxicity which is much more problematic with alcohol). Withdrawal effects and dependence are also almost identical.[10] Alcohol at moderate levels has some positive and negative effects on health. The negative effects include increased risk of liver diseases, oropharyngeal cancer, esophageal cancer and pancreatitis. Conversely moderate intake of alcohol may have some beneficial effects on gastritis and cholelithiasis.[11] Chronic alcohol misuse and abuse has serious effects on physical and mental health. Chronic excess alcohol intake, or alcohol dependence, can lead to a wide range of neuropsychiatric or neurological impairment, cardiovascular disease, liver disease, and malignant neoplasms. The psychiatric disorders which are associated with alcoholism include major depression, dysthymia, mania, hypomania, panic disorder, phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, personality disorders, schizophrenia, suicide, neurologic deficits (e.g. impairments of working memory, emotions, executive functions, visuospatial abilities and gait and balance) and brain damage. Alcohol dependence is associated with hypertension, coronary heart disease, and ischemic stroke, cancer of the respiratory system, and also cancers of the digestive system, liver, breast and ovaries. Heavy drinking is associated with liver disease, such as cirrhosis.[12] Studies have focused on both men and women, various age groups, and people of many ethnic groups. Published papers now total in the many hundreds, with studies having shown correlation between moderate alcohol use and health that may instead have been due to the beneficial effects of socialization that is often accompanied by alcohol consumption. Some of the specific ways alcohol affects cardiovascular health have been studied.[13]

Maximum quantity recommended

Further information: Recommended maximum intake of alcoholic beverages

Different countries recommend different maximum quantities. For most countries, the maximum quantity for men is 140 g–210 g per week. For women, the range is 84 g–140 g per week. Most countries recommend total abstinence whilst pregnant or breastfeeding.

Alcohol-related deaths

Over-consumption of alcohol is one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide.[14] One study links alcohol to 1 in every 25 deaths worldwide and that 5% of years lived with disability are attributable to alcohol consumption.[15][16]

Countries collect statistics on alcohol-related deaths. While some categories relate to short-term effects, such as accidents, many relate to long-term effects of alcohol.

Russia

Main article: Alcoholism in Russia

One study claims that "excessive alcohol consumption in Russia, particularly by men, has in recent years caused more than half of all the deaths at ages 15-54 years."[17] However, there are some difficulties with this study. For instance the same study also found a protective effect of heavy drinking on breast cancer mortality. This contradicts the well established scientific view that alcohol increases breast cancer risk.[18] On this account in further correspondence it was advised that "careful interpretation of mortality statistics in relation to alcohol use is needed, taking into account other relevant risk factors, incidence, and survival."[19]

The authors replied that "whether or not the apparent shortfall in breast cancer mortality among heavy drinkers is real, it accounts for only about 0·1% of adult deaths in Russia. Careful interpretation of it is therefore of little relevance to the findings for alcohol and overall mortality".

United Kingdom

Alcohol-related deaths in the United Kingdom are coded using the Tenth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10).[20] ICD-10 comprises:

  • Mental and behavioural disorders due to use of alcohol – ICD-10 F10
  • Degeneration of nervous system due to alcohol – ICD-10 G31.2
  • Alcoholic polyneuropathy – ICD-10 G62.1
  • Alcoholic cardiomyopathy – ICD-10 I42.6
  • Alcoholic gastritis – ICD-10 K29.2
  • Alcoholic liver disease – ICD-10 K70
  • Chronic hepatitis, not elsewhere classified – ICD-10 K73
  • Fibrosis and cirrhosis of liver – ICD-10 K74 (Excluding K74.3-K74.5 – Biliary cirrhosis)
  • Alcohol induced chronic pancreatitis – ICD-10 K86.0
  • Accidental poisoning by and exposure to alcohol – ICD-10 X45
  • Intentional self-poisoning by and exposure to alcohol – ICD-10 X65
  • Poisoning by and exposure to alcohol, undetermined intent – ICD-10 Y15

UK statistical bodies report that "There were 8,724 alcohol-related deaths in 2007, lower than 2006, but more than double the 4,144 recorded in 1991. The alcohol-related death rate was 13.3 per 100,000 population in 2007, compared with 6.9 per 100,000 population in 1991."[21]

In Scotland, the NHS estimate that in 2003 one in every 20 deaths could be attributed to alcohol.[22]

A 2009 study found that 9,000 people are dying from alcohol-related diseases every year, three times the number 25 years previously.[23]

United States

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report, "From 2001–2005, there were approximately 79,000 deaths annually attributable to excessive alcohol use. In fact, excessive alcohol use is the 3rd leading lifestyle-related cause of death for people in the United States each year."[24] A 1993 study estimated US deaths through alcohol at 100,000.[25]

Overall mortality

A 23-year prospective study of 12,000 male British physicians aged 48–78, found that overall mortality was significantly lower in the group consuming less than 2 "units" (British unit = 8 g) per day than in the non-alcohol-drinking group. Greater than 2 units per day was associated with an increased risk of mortality.[26]

This is consistent with other research that found a J-curve dependency between alcohol consumption and total mortality among middle aged and older men. While the mortality rates of ex-drinkers and those drinking beyond moderation are significantly elevated, the all-cause mortality rates may be 15-18% lower among moderate drinkers (1–2 drinks per day) than among abstainers - a meta-analysis found.[27] This claim was challenged by another study[28][29] that found that in certain low quality studies occasional drinkers or ex-drinkers where included as abstainers, resulting in the increased mortality in that group. However, the J-curve for total and CHD mortality was reconfirmed by studies that took the mentioned confounders into account[30][31][32][33]

The observed decrease in mortality of light-to-moderate drinkers comparing to abstainers can be partially explained by superior health and social status of the drinking group,[34] however the protective effect of alcohol in light to moderate drinkers remains significant even after adjusting for these confounders.[31][33] Additionally, confounders such as underreporting of alcohol intake might lead to the underestimation of how much mortality is reduced in light-to-moderate drinkers.[30][35]

Heavy drinking leads to increased mortality. For example a US study found that men who consumed 5 or more drinks on drinking days had a 30% higher mortality rate than those consuming only 1 drink.[33] According to another study, drinkers with heavy drinking occasions (six or more drinks at a time) have a 57% higher all-cause mortality than drinkers without heavy drinking occasions.[36]

Cardiovascular system

Main article: Alcohol and cardiovascular disease

A meta-analysis of 34 studies found a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease in men who drank 2 - 4 drinks per day and women who drank 1 - 2 drinks per day.[27] A meta-analysis of randomized trials found that alcohol consumption in moderation decreases serum levels of fibrinogen, a protein that promotes clot formation and increases levels of tissue type plasminogen activator, an enzyme that helps dissolve clots.[37] The serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of inflammation and predictor of CHD (coronary heart disease) risk, are lower in people who drink moderately than those who abstain from alcohol suggesting that alcohol consumption in moderation might have anti-inflammatory effects.[38][39][40] In addition to its psychotropic properties, alcohol has anticoagulation properties similar to warfarin.[41][42] Additionally, thrombosis is lower among moderate drinkers than teetotalers.[43]

Despite epidemiological evidence, some criticize the idea of recommending alcohol for health benefits. A doctor at the World Health Organisation stated that recommending moderate alcohol consumption for health benefits is "ridiculous and dangerous".[44][45] There have been no randomised controlled trials to demonstrate the cardio benefits of alcohol. Due to the risks of abuse, dependence, adverse effects, alcohol should never be recommended for cardio benefits as a substitute to well-proven measures, such as a good diet, exercise or pharmaceutical drugs.[46] It has been argued[who?] that the health benefits from alcohol are at best debatable and may have been exaggerated by the alcohol industry. Alcohol should be regarded as a recreational drug with potentially serious adverse effects on health and should not be promoted for cardio-protection.[6]

Peripheral arterial disease

"Moderate alcohol consumption appears to decrease the risk of PAD in apparently healthy men."[47] "In this large population-based study, moderate alcohol consumption was inversely associated with peripheral arterial disease in women but not in men. Residual confounding by smoking may have influenced the results. Among nonsmokers an inverse association was found between alcohol consumption and peripheral arterial disease in both men and women."[48][49]

Intermittent claudication (IC)

A study found that moderate consumption of alcohol had a protective effect against intermittent claudication. The lowest risk was seen in men who drank 1 to 2 drinks per day and in women who drank half to 1 drink per day.[50]

Heart attack and stroke

Drinking in moderation has been found to help those who have suffered a heart attack survive it.[51][52] However, excessive alcohol consumption leads to an increased risk of heart failure.[53] A review of the literature found that half a drink of alcohol offered the best level of protection. However, they noted that at present there have been no randomised trials to confirm the evidence which suggests a protective role of low doses of alcohol against heart attacks.[54] However, moderate alcohol consumption is associated with hypertension.[8] There is an increased risk of hypertriglyceridemia, cardiomyopathy, hypertension, and stroke if 3 or more standard drinks of alcohol are taken per day.[55]

Cardiomyopathy

Large amount of alcohol over the long term can lead to alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy presents in a manner clinically identical to idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, involving hypertrophy of the musculature of the heart that can lead to congestive heart failure.[56]

Hematologic diseases

Alcoholics may have anemia from several causes;[57] they may also develop thrombocytopenia from direct toxic effect on megakaryocytes, or from hypersplenism.

Nervous system

Chronic heavy alcohol consumption impairs brain development, causes brain shrinkage, dementia, physical dependence, increases neuropsychiatric and cognitive disorders and causes distortion of the brain chemistry. Some studies however have shown that moderate alcohol consumption may decrease risk of dementia, including Alzheimer disease, although there are studies which find the opposite. At present, due to poor study design, and methodology the literature is inconclusive on whether moderate alcohol consumptions increases the risk of dementia or decreases it.[58] Evidence for a protective effect of low to moderate alcohol consumption on age related cognitive decline and dementia has been suggested by some research, however, other research has not found a protective effect of low to moderate alcohol consumption.[59] Some evidence suggests that low to moderate alcohol consumption may speed up brain volume loss.[60] Chronic consumption of alcohol may result in increased plasma levels of the toxic amino acid homocysteine;[61][62] which may explain alcohol withdrawal seizures,[63] alcohol-induced brain atrophy[64] and alcohol-related cognitive disturbances.[65]

Strokes

Epidemiological studies of middle-aged populations generally find the relationship between alcohol intake and the risk of stroke to be either U- or J-shaped.[66][67][68][69]

"The consistency in the vascular benefit associated with moderate drinking (compared with non-drinking) observed across different studies, together with the existence of credible biological pathways, strongly suggests that at least some of this benefit is real. However, because of biases introduced by: choice of reference categories; reverse causality bias; variations in alcohol intake over time; and confounding, some of it is likely to be an artefact."[70]

Drinking lots of alcohol has been negatively linked to stroke. According to the National Stroke Association, more than 2 drinks per day (one drink is ~5 ounces of wine) may increase stroke risk by 50% and lead to other medical problems.[71] Because of this and other known harmful effects of heavy drinking, care should be taken when considering safe amounts of alcohol intake.

Brain

Alcohol abuse is associated with wide spread and significant brain lesions. Alcohol related brain damage is due not only to the direct toxic effects of alcohol; alcohol withdrawal, nutritional deficiency, electrolyte disturbances, and liver damage are also believed to contribute to alcohol related brain damage.[72]

Brain development

Consuming large amounts of alcohol over a period of time can impair normal brain development in humans.[73][74] Deficits in retrieval of verbal and nonverbal information and in visuospatial functioning were evident in youths with histories of heavy drinking during early and middle adolescence.[75][76]

During adolescence critical stages of neurodevelopment occur. Binge drinking, which is common among adolescents, interferes with this important stage of development.[77] Heavy alcohol consumption inhibits new brain cell development.[78]

Nearly half of chronic alcoholics may have myopathy.[79] Proximal muscle groups are especially affected. Twenty-five percent of alcoholics may have peripheral neuropathy, including autonomic.[80]

Cognition and dementia

Excessive alcohol intake is associated with impaired prospective memory. This impaired cognitive ability leads to increased failure to carry out an intended task at a later date, for example, forgetting to lock the door or to post a letter on time. The higher the volume of alcohol consumed and the longer consumed, the more severe the impairments.[81] One of the organs most sensitive to the toxic effects of chronic alcohol consumption is the brain. In France approximately 20% of admissions to mental health facilities are related to alcohol related cognitive impairment, most notably alcohol related dementia. Chronic excessive alcohol intake is also associated with serious cognitive decline and a range of neuropsychiatric complications. The elderly are the most sensitive to the toxic effects of alcohol on the brain.[82] There is some inconclusive evidence that small amounts of alcohol taken in earlier adult life is protective in later life against cognitive decline and dementia.[83] However, a study concluded, "Our findings suggest that, despite previous suggestions, moderate alcohol consumption does not protect older people from cognitive decline."[84]

Acetaldehyde is produced by the liver during breakdown of ethanol. People who have a genetic deficiency for the subsequent conversion of acetaldehyde into acetic acid (a trait more prevalent in those of East Asian descent[citation needed]) may have a greater risk of Alzheimer's disease. "These results indicate that the ALDH2 deficiency is a risk factor for LOAD [late-onset Alzheimer's disease] …"[85]

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is a manifestation of thiamine deficiency, usually as a secondary effect of alcohol abuse.[86] The syndrome is a combined manifestation of two eponymous disorders, Korsakoff's Psychosis and Wernicke's encephalopathy, named after Drs. Sergei Korsakoff and Carl Wernicke. Wernicke's encephalopathy is the acute presentation of the syndrome and is characterised by a confusional state while Korsakoff's psychosis main symptoms are amnesia and executive dysfunction.[87]

Essential tremor

Essential tremors can be temporarily relieved in up to two-thirds of patients by drinking small amounts of alcohol.[88]

Sleep

Chronic use of alcohol used to induce sleep can lead to insomnia. Frequent moving between sleep stages occurs, with awakenings due to headaches and diaphoresis. Stopping chronic alcohol abuse can also lead to profound disturbances of sleep with vivid dreams. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. During withdrawal REM sleep is typically exaggerated as part of a rebound effect.[89]

Mental health effects

High rates of major depressive disorder occur in heavy drinkers and those who abuse alcohol. Whether it is more true that major depressive disorder causes self-medicating alcohol abuse, or the increased incidence of the disorder in alcohol abusers is caused by the drinking, is not known though some evidence suggests drinking causes the disorder.[90] Alcohol misuse is associated with a number of mental health disorders and alcoholics have a very high suicide rate.[91] A study of people hospitalised for suicide attempts found that those who were alcoholics were 75 times more likely to go on to successfully commit suicide than non-alcoholic suicide attempters.[92] In the general alcoholic population the increased risk of suicide compared to the general public is 5 - 20 times greater. About 15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide. Abuse of other drugs is also associated with an increased risk of suicide. About 33 percent of suicides in the under 35s are due to alcohol or other substance misuse.[93]

Studies have shown that alcohol dependence relates directly to cravings and irritability.[94] Another study has shown that alcohol use is a significant predisposing factor towards antisocial behavior in children.[95] Depression, anxiety and panic disorder are disorders commonly reported by alcohol dependent people. Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing (e.g. the amygdala and hippocampus).[96] Evidence that the mental health disorders are often induced by alcohol misuse via distortion of brain neurochemistry is indicated by the improvement or disappearance of symptoms that occurs after prolonged abstinence, although problems may worsen in early withdrawal and recovery periods.[97][98][99] Psychosis is secondary to several alcohol-related conditions including acute intoxication and withdrawal after significant exposure.[100] Chronic alcohol misuse can cause psychotic type symptoms to develop, more so than with other drugs of abuse. Alcohol abuse has been shown to cause an 800% increased risk of psychotic disorders in men and a 300% increased risk of psychotic disorders in women which are not related to pre-existing psychiatric disorders. This is significantly higher than the increased risk of psychotic disorders seen from cannabis use making alcohol abuse a very significant cause of psychotic disorders.[101] Prominent hallucinations and/or delusions are usually present when a patient is intoxicated or recently withdrawn from alcohol.[100]

Whilst alcohol initially helps social phobia or panic symptoms, with longer term alcohol misuse can often worsen social phobia symptoms and can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen, during alcohol intoxication and especially during the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines which are sometimes prescribed as tranquillisers to people with alcohol problems.[102] Approximately half of patients attending mental health services for conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia are the result of alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence. It was noted that every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs and what one person can tolerate without ill health another will suffer very ill health and that even moderate drinking can cause rebound anxiety syndromes and sleep disorders. A person who is suffering the toxic effects of alcohol will not benefit from other therapies or medications as they do not address the root cause of the symptoms.[103]

Digestive system and weight gain

See also: Alcohol and weight, Alcoholic liver disease, Alcoholic hepatitis, Fatty liver, and Cirrhosis

The impact of alcohol on weight-gain is contentious: some studies find no effect,[104] others find decreased[105] or increased effect on weight gain.

Alcohol use increases the risk of chronic gastritis (stomach inflammation);[106][107] it is one cause of cirrhosis, hepatitis, and pancreatitis in both its chronic and acute forms.

Metabolic syndrome

A study concluded, "Mild to moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a lower prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, with a favorable influence on lipids, waist circumference, and fasting insulin. This association was strongest among whites and among beer and wine drinkers."[108] This is also true for Asians. A J-curve association between alcohol intake and metabolic syndrome was found: "The results of the present study suggest that the metabolic syndrome is negatively associated with light alcohol consumption (1–15 g alcohol/d) in Korean adults". However, "odds ratios for the metabolic syndrome and its components tended to increase with increasing alcohol consumption."[109]

Gallbladder effects

Research has found that drinking reduces the risk of developing gallstones. Compared with alcohol abstainers, the relative risk of gallstone disease, controlling for age, sex, education, smoking, and body mass index, is 0.83 for occasional and regular moderate drinkers (< 25 ml of ethanol per day), 0.67 for intermediate drinkers (25-50 ml per day), and 0.58 for heavy drinkers. This inverse association was consistent across strata of age, sex, and body mass index."[110] Frequency of drinking also appears to be a factor. "An increase in frequency of alcohol consumption also was related to decreased risk. Combining the reports of quantity and frequency of alcohol intake, a consumption pattern that reflected frequent intake (5-7 days/week) of any given amount of alcohol was associated with a decreased risk, as compared with nondrinkers. In contrast, infrequent alcohol intake (1-2 days/week) showed no significant association with risk.”[111]

Consumption of alcohol is unrelated to gallbladder disease.[112] However one study suggested that drinkers who take vitamin C (ascorbic acid) might reduce their risk of gallbladder disease.[113]

Liver disease

Alcoholic liver disease is a major public health problem. For example in the United States up to two million people have alcohol related liver disorders. Chronic alcohol abuse can cause fatty liver, cirrhosis and alcoholic hepatitis. Treatment options are limited and consist of most importantly discontinuing alcohol consumption. In cases of severe liver disease, the only treatment option may be a liver transplant in alcohol abstinent patients. Research is being conducted into the effectiveness of anti-TNFs. Certain complimentary medications, e.g., milk thistle and silymarin, appear to offer some benefit.[114][115] Alcohol is a leading cause of liver cancer in the Western world, accounting for 32-45% of hepatic cancers. Up to half a million people in the United States develop alcohol related liver cancer.[116][117] Moderate alcohol consumption also increases the risk of liver disease.[8]

Pancreatitis

Alcohol misuse is a leading cause of both acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis.[118][119] Chronic excessive intake of alcohol can cause destruction of the pancreas resulting in severe chronic pain, which may progress to pancreatic cancer.[120] Chronic pancreatitis often results in malabsorption problems and diabetes.[121]

Other systems

Alcoholic Lung disease

Chronic alcohol ingestion impairs multiple critical cellular functions in the lung. These cellular impairments lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease. Recent research cites alcoholic lung disease as comparable to liver disease in alcohol related mortality. Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics.

Kidney stones

Research indicates that drinking alcohol is associated with a lower risk of developing kidney stones. One study concludes, "Since beer seemed to be protective against kidney stones, the physiologic effects of other substances besides ethanol, especially those of hops, should also be examined."[122] "...consumption of coffee, alcohol, and vitamin C supplements were negatively associated with stones."[123] "After mutually adjusting for the intake of other beverages, the risk of stone formation decreased by the following amount for each 240-ml (8-oz) serving consumed daily: caffeinated coffee, 10%; decaffeinated coffee, 10%; tea, 14%; beer, 21%; and wine, 39%."[124] "...stone formation decreased by the following amount for each 240-mL (8-oz) serving consumed daily: 10% for caffeinated coffee, 9% for decaffeinated coffee, 8% for tea, and 59% for wine." (CI data excised from last two quotes.).[125]

Sexual dysfunction

Long term excessive intake of alcohol can lead to damage to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system resulting in loss of sexual desire and impotence in men.[126]

Hormonal Imbalance

Excessive alcohol intake can result in hyperoestrogenisation.[127] It has been speculated that alcohol beverages may contain estrogen like compounds. In men, high levels of estrogen can lead to testicular failure and the development of feminine traits including development of male breasts, called gynecomastia.[128][129] In women, increased levels of estrogen due to excessive alcohol intake have been related to an increased risk of breast cancer.[129][130]

Diabetes mellitus

Moderate drinkers may have a lower risk of diabetes than non-drinkers. On the other hand, binge drinking and high alcohol consumption may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in women."[131] Alcohol consumption promotes insulin sensitivity.[132]

Rheumatoid arthritis

Regular consumption of alcohol is associated with an increased risk of gouty arthritis[133][134] and a decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis.[135][136][137][138][139] Two recent studies report that the more alcohol consumed, the lower the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Among those who drank regularly, the one-quarter who drank the most were up to 50% less likely to develop the disease compared to the half who drank the least.[140]

The researchers noted that moderate alcohol consumption also reduces the risk of other inflammatory processes such as cardiovascualar disease. Some of the biological mechanisms by which ethanol reduces the risk of destructive arthritis and prevents the loss of bone mineral density (BMD), which is part of the disease process.[141]

A study concluded, "Alcohol either protects from RA or, subjects with RA curtail their drinking after the manifestation of RA".[142] Another study found, "Postmenopausal women who averaged more than 14 alcoholic drinks per week had a reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis..."[143]

Osteoporosis

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with higher bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. "...Alcohol consumption significantly decreased the likelihood [of osteoporosis]."[144] "Moderate alcohol intake was associated with higher BMD in postmenopausal elderly women."[145] "Social drinking is associated with higher bone mineral density in men and women [over 45]."[146] However, alcohol abuse is associated with bone loss.[147][148]

Skin

Chronic excessive alcohol abuse is associated with a wide range of skin disorders including urticaria, porphyria cutanea tarda, flushing, cutaneous stigmata of cirrhosis, psoriasis, pruritus, seborrheic dermatitis and rosacea.[149]

A 2010 study concluded, "Nonlight beer intake is associated with an increased risk of developing psoriasis among women. Other alcoholic beverages did not increase the risk of psoriasis in this study."[150]

Immune system, bacterial contamination, viral infections, and cancer

Bacterial infection

There is a protective effect of alcohol consumption against active infection with H. pylori[151] In contrast, alcohol intake (comparing those who drink > 30g of alcohol per day to non-drinkers) is not associated with higher risk of duodenal ulcer.[152] Excessive alcohol consumption seen in alcoholics is a known risk factor for pneumonia.

Common cold

A study on the common cold found that "Greater numbers of alcoholic drinks (up to three or four per day) were associated with decreased risk for developing colds because drinking was associated with decreased illness following infection. However, the benefits of drinking occurred only among nonsmokers. [...] Although alcohol consumption did not influence risk of clinical illness for smokers, moderate alcohol consumption was associated with decreased risk for nonsmokers."[153]

Another study concluded, "Findings suggest that wine intake, especially red wine, may have a protective effect against common cold. Beer, spirits, and total alcohol intakes do not seem to affect the incidence of common cold."[154]

Cancer

Main article: Alcohol and cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. Its evaluation states, "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans.... Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)."[155]

The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services’ National Toxicology Program listed alcohol as a known carcinogen in 2000.[156]

One study determined that "3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are related to alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all cancer deaths."[157] A 2011 study found that one in 10 of all cancers in men and one in 33 in women were caused by past or current alcohol intake.[158][159]

The World Cancer Research Fund panel report Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of the following cancers: mouth, pharynx and larynx, oesophagus, colorectum (men), breast (pre- and postmenopause).[160]

High concentrations of acetaldehyde, which is produced as the body breaks down ethanol, may damage DNA in healthy cells. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism have shown that acetaldehyde reacts with polyamines which are naturally occurring compounds essential for cell growth—to create a particularly dangerous type of mutagenic DNA base called a Cr-Pdg adduct.[161] Even moderate levels of alcohol consumption are associated with an increased risk of certain forms of cancer.[8]

Alcohol's effect on the fetus

Main articles: Fetal alcohol syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

Fetal alcohol syndrome or FAS is a disorder of permanent birth defects that occurs in the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy. Drinking heavily or during the early stages of prenatal development has been conclusively linked to FAS; moderate consumption is associated with fetal damage.[8] Alcohol crosses the placental barrier and can stunt fetal growth or weight, create distinctive facial stigmata, damaged neurons and brain structures, and cause other physical, mental, or behavioural problems.[162] Fetal alcohol exposure is the leading known cause of mental retardation in the Western world.[163] Alcohol consumption during pregnancy is associated with brain insulin and insulin-like growth factor resistance.[147]

See also

References

  1. ^ Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004
  2. ^ Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM (March 1985). "[Neurophysiologic findings in chronic alcohol abuse]" (in German). Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz) 37 (3): 129–32. PMID 2988001. 
  3. ^ Testino G (2008). "Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view". Hepatogastroenterology 55 (82-83): 371–7. PMID 18613369. 
  4. ^ Caan, Woody; Belleroche, Jackie de, eds (11 April 2002). Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0415278911. http://books.google.com/?id=nPvbDUw4w5QC. 
  5. ^ Mellon, RD.; Simone, AF.; Rappaport, BA. (Mar 2007). "Use of anesthetic agents in neonates and young children.". Anesth Analg 104 (3): 509–20. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000255729.96438.b0. PMID 17312200. http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/cgi/content/full/104/3/509. 
  6. ^ a b Sellman, D.; Connor, J.; Robinson, G.; Jackson, R. (2009). "Alcohol cardio-protection has been talked up.". N Z Med J 122 (1303): 97–101. PMID 19851424. 
  7. ^ Sinkiewicz, W.; Weglarz, M. (2009). "[Alcohol and wine and cardiovascular diseases in epidemiologic studies]". Przegl Lek 66 (5): 233–8. PMID 19739580. 
  8. ^ a b c d e Andréasson, S.; Allebeck, P. (28 February - 6 March 2005). "[Alcohol as medication is no good. More risks than benefits according to a survey of current knowledge]". Lakartidningen 102 (9): 632–7. PMID 15804034. 
  9. ^ http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh24-1/05-11.pdf
  10. ^ Gitlow, Stuart (1 October 2006). Substance Use Disorders: A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). USA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. pp. 101–103. ISBN 978-0781769983. http://books.google.com/?id=rbrSdWVerBUC. 
  11. ^ Taylor B, Rehm J, Gmel G (2005). "Moderate alcohol consumption and the gastrointestinal tract". Dig Dis 23 (3-4): 170–6. doi:10.1159/000090163. PMID 16508280. http://content.karger.com/produktedb/produkte.asp?typ=fulltext&file=DDI20050233_4170. 
  12. ^ Cargiulo T (March 2007). "Understanding the health impact of alcohol dependence". Am J Health Syst Pharm 64 (5 Suppl 3): S5–11. doi:10.2146/ajhp060647. PMID 17322182. 
  13. ^ Vliegenthart R, Oei HH, van den Elzen AP, et al. (November 2004). "Alcohol consumption and coronary calcification in a general population". Arch. Intern. Med. 164 (21): 2355–60. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.21.2355. PMID 15557415. 
    Koppes LL, Twisk JW, Snel J, Van Mechelen W, Kemper HC (May 2000). "Blood cholesterol levels of 32-year-old alcohol consumers are better than of nonconsumers". Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 66 (1): 163–7. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(00)00195-7. PMID 10837856. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0091-3057(00)00195-7. 
    Albert MA, Glynn RJ, Ridker PM (January 2003). "Alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of C-reactive protein". Circulation 107 (3): 443–7. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000045669.16499.EC. PMID 12551869. http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12551869. 
    Baer DJ, Judd JT, Clevidence BA, et al. (1 March 2002). "Moderate alcohol consumption lowers risk factors for cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women fed a controlled diet". Am J Clin Nutr. 75 (3): 593–9. PMID 11864868. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11864868. 
    Catena C, Novello M, Dotto L, De Marchi S, Sechi LA (February 2003). "Serum lipoprotein(a) concentrations and alcohol consumption in hypertension: possible relevance for cardiovascular damage". J. Hypertens. 21 (2): 281–8. doi:10.1097/01.hjh.0000052436.12292.26 (inactive 2009-01-13). PMID 12569257. 
  14. ^ Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ (May 2006). "Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data". Lancet 367 (9524): 1747–57. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9. PMID 16731270. 
  15. ^ BBC Alcohol link to one in 25 deaths
  16. ^ Jürgen Rehm, Colin Mathers, Svetlana Popova, Montarat Thavorncharoensap, Yot Teerawattananon, Jayadeep Patra Global burden of disease and injury and economic cost attributable to alcohol use and alcohol-use disorders The Lancet, Volume 373, Issue 9682, Pages 2223 - 2233, 27 June 2009 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60746-7
  17. ^ IARC Alcohol causes more than half of all the premature deaths in Russian adults
  18. ^ Tjønneland, A.; Christensen, J.; Olsen, A.; Stripp, C.; Thomsen, BL.; Overvad, K.; Peeters, PH.; van Gils, CH. et al. (May 2007). "Alcohol intake and breast cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC).". Cancer Causes Control 18 (4): 361–73. doi:10.1007/s10552-006-0112-9. PMID 17364225. 
  19. ^ Soerjomataram, I.; de Vries, E.; Coebergh, JW. (Sep 2009). "Did alcohol protect against death from breast cancer in Russia?". Lancet 374 (9694): 975; author reply 975–6. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61657-3. PMID 19766875. 
  20. ^ Alcohol-related deaths in the United Kingdom and links therefrom
  21. ^ Alcohol Deaths: Rates stabilise in the UK
  22. ^ BBC Alcohol 'kills one in 20 Scots' 30 June 2009
  23. ^ Sam Lister The price of alcohol: an extra 6,000 early deaths a year The Times 19 October 2009
  24. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Alcohol and Public Health
  25. ^ McGinnis J. Michael, Foege William H. (1993). "Actual Causes of Death in the United States". JAMA 270 (18): 2207–2212. doi:10.1001/jama.270.18.2207. PMID 8411605. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/270/18/2207?ijkey=f6b2a35ebda67d08b66074771b6a6000007c3770. 
  26. ^ Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (February 2005). "Mortality in relation to alcohol consumption: a prospective study among male British doctors". Int J Epidemiol 34 (1): 199–204. doi:10.1093/ije/dyh369. PMID 15647313. http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/34/1/199. 
  27. ^ a b Di Castelnuovo, A.; Costanzo, S.; Bagnardi, V.; Donati, MB.; Iacoviello, L.; de Gaetano, G.. "Alcohol dosing and total mortality in men and women: an updated meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies.". Arch Intern Med 166 (22): 2437–45. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.22.2437. PMID 17159008. 
  28. ^ Fillmore, KM.; Stockwell, T.; Chikritzhs, T.; Bostrom, A.; Kerr, W. (May 2007). "Moderate alcohol use and reduced mortality risk: systematic error in prospective studies and new hypotheses.". Ann Epidemiol 17 (5 Suppl): S16-23. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.01.005. PMID 17478320. 
  29. ^ Chikritzhs, T.; Fillmore, K.; Stockwell, T. (Jul 2009). "A healthy dose of scepticism: four good reasons to think again about protective effects of alcohol on coronary heart disease.". Drug Alcohol Rev 28 (4): 441–4. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00052.x. PMID 19594799. 
  30. ^ a b Ann Epidemiol. 2007. Volume 17, Issue 5. Alcohol Drinking and Total Mortality Risk Arthur L. Klatsky, MD, Natalia Udaltsova, PhD
  31. ^ a b Lee, SJ.; Sudore, RL.; Williams, BA.; Lindquist, K.; Chen, HL.; Covinsky, KE. (Jun 2009). "Functional limitations, socioeconomic status, and all-cause mortality in moderate alcohol drinkers.". J Am Geriatr Soc 57 (6): 955–62. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02184.x. PMID 19473456. 
  32. ^ Arriola, L.; Martinez-Camblor, P.; Larrañaga, N.; Basterretxea, M.; Amiano, P.; Moreno-Iribas, C.; Carracedo, R.; Agudo, A. et al. (Jan 2010). "Alcohol intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in the Spanish EPIC cohort study.". Heart 96 (2): 124–30. doi:10.1136/hrt.2009.173419. PMID 19933099. 
  33. ^ a b c Holahan, CJ.; Schutte, KK.; Brennan, PL.; Holahan, CK.; Moos, BS.; Moos, RH. (Nov 2010). "Late-life alcohol consumption and 20-year mortality.". Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34 (11): 1961–71. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01286.x. PMID 20735372. 
  34. ^ Hansel, B.; Thomas, F.; Pannier, B.; Bean, K.; Kontush, A.; Chapman, MJ.; Guize, L.; Bruckert, E. (Jun 2010). "Relationship between alcohol intake, health and social status and cardiovascular risk factors in the urban Paris-Ile-De-France Cohort: is the cardioprotective action of alcohol a myth?". Eur J Clin Nutr 64 (6): 561–8. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.61. PMID 20485310. 
  35. ^ Klatsky, AL. (Oct 2008). "Invited commentary: never, or hardly ever? It could make a difference.". Am J Epidemiol 168 (8): 872–5; discussion 876–7. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn192. PMID 18701441. 
  36. ^ Laatikainen, T.; Manninen, L.; Poikolainen, K.; Vartiainen, E. (May 2003). "Increased mortality related to heavy alcohol intake pattern.". J Epidemiol Community Health 57 (5): 379–84. PMID 12700224. 
  37. ^ Rimm, EB.; Williams, P.; Fosher, K.; Criqui, M.; Stampfer, MJ. (Dec 1999). "Moderate alcohol intake and lower risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of effects on lipids and haemostatic factors.". BMJ 319 (7224): 1523–8. PMC 28294. PMID 10591709. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=28294. 
  38. ^ Albert, MA.; Glynn, RJ.; Ridker, PM. (Jan 2003). "Alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of C-reactive protein.". Circulation 107 (3): 443–7. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000045669.16499.EC. PMID 12551869. 
  39. ^ Stewart, SH.; Mainous, AG.; Gilbert, G. (2002). "Relation between alcohol consumption and C-reactive protein levels in the adult US population." (PDF). J Am Board Fam Pract 15 (6): 437–42. PMID 12463288. http://www.jabfm.org/cgi/reprint/15/6/437.pdf. 
  40. ^ Imhof, A.; Froehlich, M.; Brenner, H.; Boeing, H.; Pepys, MB.; Koenig, W. (Mar 2001). "Effect of alcohol consumption on systemic markers of inflammation.". Lancet 357 (9258): 763–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04170-2. PMID 11253971. 
  41. ^ Mennen LI, Balkau B, Vol S, Cacès E, Eschwège E (1 April 1999). "Fibrinogen: a possible link between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease? DESIR Study Group". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 19 (4): 887–92. PMID 10195914. http://atvb.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10195914. 
  42. ^ Paassilta M, Kervinen K, Rantala AO, et al. (14 February 1998). "Social alcohol consumption and low Lp(a) lipoprotein concentrations in middle aged Finnish men: population based study". BMJ 316 (7131): 594–5. PMC 28464. PMID 9518912. http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9518912. 
  43. ^ Lacoste L, Hung J, Lam JY (January 2001). "Acute and delayed antithrombotic effects of alcohol in humans". Am J Cardiol. 87 (1): 82–5. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(00)01277-7. PMID 11137839. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-9149(00)01277-7. 
    Pahor M, Guralnik JM, Havlik RJ, et al. (September 1996). "Alcohol consumption and risk of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in older persons". J Am Geriatr Soc 44 (9): 1030–7. PMID 8790226. 
    Ridker, P., et al. Moderate alcohol intake may reduce risk of thrombosis. American Medical Association press release, September 22, 1994
    Ridker, P. (1996). "The Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis and Acute Thrombosis". In Manson, JoAnn E.. Prevention of myocardial infarction. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508582-5. 
  44. ^ Abdulla S (December 1997). "Is alcohol really good for you?". J R Soc Med 90 (12): 651. PMC 1296731. PMID 9496287. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1296731. 
  45. ^ Naimi TS, Brown DW, Brewer RD, et al. (May 2005). "Cardiovascular risk factors and confounders among nondrinking and moderate-drinking U.S. adults". Am J Prev Med 28 (4): 369–73. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.01.011. PMID 15831343. 
  46. ^ Vogel, RA. (2002). "Alcohol, heart disease, and mortality: a review.". Rev Cardiovasc Med 3 (1): 7–13. PMID 12439349. 
  47. ^ Camargo CA, Stampfer MJ, Glynn RJ, et al. (4 February 1997). "Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of peripheral arterial disease in US male physicians". Circulation 95 (3): 577–80. PMID 9024142. http://www.circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/95/3/577. 
  48. ^ Vliegenthart R, Geleijnse JM, Hofman A, et al. (February 2002). "Alcohol consumption and risk of peripheral arterial disease: the Rotterdam study". Am J Epidemiol. 155 (4): 332–8. doi:10.1093/aje/155.4.332. PMID 11836197. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/155/4/332. 
  49. ^ Mingardi R, Avogaro A, Noventa F, et al. (1997). "Alcohol intake is associated with a lower prevalence of peripheral vascular disease in non-insulin dependent diabetic women". Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Disease 7 (4): 301–8. 
  50. ^ Djoussé L, Levy D, Murabito JM, Cupples LA, Ellison RC (19 December 2000). "Alcohol consumption and risk of intermittent claudication in the Framingham Heart Study". Circulation 102 (25): 3092–7. PMID 11120700. http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/102/25/3092. 
  51. ^ Muntwyler J, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Gaziano JM (December 1998). "Mortality and light to moderate alcohol consumption after myocardial infarction". Lancet 352 (9144): 1882–5. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)06351-X. PMID 9863785. 
    Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Sherwood JB, Mittleman MA (April 2001). "Prior alcohol consumption and mortality following acute myocardial infarction". JAMA 285 (15): 1965–70. doi:10.1001/jama.285.15.1965. PMID 11308432. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11308432. 
  52. ^ Alcohol helps reduce damage after heart attacks
  53. ^ Djoussé L, Gaziano JM (April 2008). "Alcohol consumption and heart failure: a systematic review". Curr Atheroscler Rep 10 (2): 117–20. doi:10.1007/s11883-008-0017-z. PMC 2365733. PMID 18417065. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2365733. 
  54. ^ Kloner RA, Rezkalla SH (September 2007). "To drink or not to drink? That is the question". Circulation 116 (11): 1306–17. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678375. PMID 17846344. http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/116/11/1306. 
  55. ^ Saremi A, Arora R (2008). "The cardiovascular implications of alcohol and red wine". Am J Ther 15 (3): 265–77. doi:10.1097/MJT.0b013e3180a5e61a. PMID 18496264. 
  56. ^ Awtry, EH.; Philippides, GJ. (2010). "Alcoholic and cocaine-associated cardiomyopathies.". Prog Cardiovasc Dis 52 (4): 289–99. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2009.11.004. PMID 20109599. 
  57. ^ Savage D, Lindenbaum J (1986). "Anemia in alcoholics". Medicine (Baltimore) 65 (5): 322–38. PMID 3747828. 
  58. ^ Panza F, Capurso C, D'Introno A, et al. (2008). "Vascular risk factors, alcohol intake, and cognitive decline". J Nutr Health Aging 12 (6): 376–81. doi:10.1007/BF02982669. PMID 18548174. 
  59. ^ Panza, F.; Capurso, C.; D'Introno, A.; Colacicco, AM.; Frisardi, V.; Lorusso, M.; Santamato, A.; Seripa, D. et al. (May 2009). "Alcohol drinking, cognitive functions in older age, predementia, and dementia syndromes.". J Alzheimers Dis 17 (1): 7–31. doi:10.3233/JAD-2009-1009. PMID 19494429. 
  60. ^ Verbaten, MN. (Apr 2009). "Chronic effects of low to moderate alcohol consumption on structural and functional properties of the brain: beneficial or not?". Hum Psychopharmacol 24 (3): 199–205. doi:10.1002/hup.1022. PMID 19330800. 
  61. ^ Bleich S, Bleich K, Kropp S, Bittermann HJ, Degner D, Sperling W, Rüther E, Kornhuber J. Moderate alcohol consumption in social drinkers raises plasma homocysteine levels: a contradiction to the "french paradox"? Alcohol Alcohol. 36:189-192, 2001. PMID 11373253
  62. ^ Bleich S, Carl M, Bayerlein K, Reulbach U, Biermann T, Hillemacher T, Bönsch D, Kornhuber J. Evidence of increased homocysteine levels in alcoholism: the Franconian Alcoholism Research Studies (FARS). Alcohol.Clin.Exp.Res. 29:334-336, 2005. PMID 15770107
  63. ^ Bleich S, Degner D, Bandelow B, von Ahsen N, Rüther E, Kornhuber J. Plasma homocysteine is a predictor for ethanol withdrawal seizures. NeuroReport 11:2749-2752, 2000. PMID 10976956
  64. ^ Bleich S, Bandelow B, Javaheripour K, Müller A, Degner D, Wilhelm J, Havemann-Reinecke U, Sperling W, Rüther E, Kornhuber J. Hyperhomocysteinemia as a new risk factor for brain shrinkage in patients with alcoholism. Neurosci.Lett. 335:179-182, 2003. PMID 12531462
  65. ^ Wilhelm J, Bayerlein K, Hillemacher T, Reulbach U, Frieling H, Kromolan B, Degner D, Kornhuber J, Bleich S. Short-term cognitive deficits during early alcohol withdrawal are associated with elevated plasma homocysteine levels in patients with alcoholism. J.Neural Transm. 113:357-363, 2006. PMID 15997414
  66. ^ Di Castelnuovo, A.; Costanzo, S.; di Giuseppe, R.; de Gaetano, G.; Iacoviello, L. (Sep 2009). "Alcohol consumption and cardiovascular risk: mechanisms of action and epidemiologic perspectives.". Future Cardiol 5 (5): 467–77. doi:10.2217/fca.09.36. PMID 19715411. 
  67. ^ Klatsky, AL. (May 2009). "Alcohol and cardiovascular diseases.". Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 7 (5): 499–506. doi:10.1586/erc.09.22. PMID 19419257. 
  68. ^ Galimanis, A.; Mono, ML.; Arnold, M.; Nedeltchev, K.; Mattle, HP. (Feb 2009). "Lifestyle and stroke risk: a review.". Curr Opin Neurol 22 (1): 60–8. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32831fda0e. PMID 19155763. 
  69. ^ O'Keefe, JH.; Bybee, KA.; Lavie, CJ. (Sep 2007). "Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the razor-sharp double-edged sword.". J Am Coll Cardiol 50 (11): 1009–14. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.04.089. PMID 17825708. 
  70. ^ Emberson, JR.; Bennett, DA. (2006). "Effect of alcohol on risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: causality, bias, or a bit of both?". Vasc Health Risk Manag 2 (3): 239–49. PMID 17326330. 
  71. ^ http://www.stroke.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Alcohol
  72. ^ Neiman, J. (Oct 1998). "Alcohol as a risk factor for brain damage: neurologic aspects.". Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22 (7 Suppl): 346S–351S. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb04389.x. PMID 9799959. 
  73. ^ White AM, Bae JG, Truesdale MC, Ahmad S, Wilson WA, Swartzwelder HS (July 2002). "Chronic-intermittent ethanol exposure during adolescence prevents normal developmental changes in sensitivity to ethanol-induced motor impairments". Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 26 (7): 960–8. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02628.x. PMID 12170104. 
  74. ^ Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA (February 2001). "fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women". Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 25 (2): 236–45. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x. PMID 11236838. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2001&volume=25&issue=2&spage=236. 
  75. ^ Squeglia LM, Jacobus J, Tapert SF (January 2009). "The influence of substance use on adolescent brain development". Clin EEG Neurosci 40 (1): 31–8. PMC 2827693. PMID 19278130. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2827693. 
  76. ^ Brown SA, Tapert SF, Granholm E, Delis DC (February 2000). "Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: effects of protracted alcohol use". Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 24 (2): 164–71. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb04586.x. PMID 10698367. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2000&volume=24&issue=2&spage=164. 
  77. ^ Crews, F.; He, J.; Hodge, C. (Feb 2007). "Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction.". Pharmacol Biochem Behav 86 (2): 189–99. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.001. PMID 17222895. 
  78. ^ American Association for the Advancement of Science New brain cells develop during alcohol abstinence, UNC study shows
  79. ^ Urbano-Marquez A, Estruch R, Navarro-Lopez F, Grau JM, Mont L, Rubin E (1989). "The effects of alcoholism on skeletal and cardiac muscle". N. Engl. J. Med. 320 (7): 409–15. doi:10.1056/NEJM198902163200701. PMID 2913506. 
  80. ^ Monforte R, Estruch R, Valls-Solé J, Nicolás J, Villalta J, Urbano-Marquez A (1995). "Autonomic and peripheral neuropathies in patients with chronic alcoholism. A dose-related toxic effect of alcohol". Arch. Neurol. 52 (1): 45–51. PMID 7826275. 
  81. ^ Heffernan, TM. (Jan 2008). "The impact of excessive alcohol use on prospective memory: a brief review.". Curr Drug Abuse Rev 1 (1): 36–41. doi:10.2174/1874473710801010036. PMID 19630703. 
  82. ^ Pierucci-Lagha A, Derouesné C (December 2003). "[Alcoholism and aging. 2. Alcoholic dementia or alcoholic cognitive impairment?]" (in French). Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil 1 (4): 237–49. PMID 15683959. 
  83. ^ Peters R, Peters J, Warner J, Beckett N, Bulpitt C (September 2008). "Alcohol, dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly: a systematic review". Age Ageing 37 (5): 505–12. doi:10.1093/ageing/afn095. PMID 18487267. http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/37/5/505. 
  84. ^ Claudia Cooper, Paul Bebbington, Howard Meltzer, Rachel Jenkins, Traolach Brugha, James Lindesay and Gill Livingston Alcohol in moderation, premorbid intelligence and cognition In Older Adults: results from the Psychiatric Morbidity Survey J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry doi:10.1136/jnnp.2008.163964
  85. ^ "Mitochondrial ALDH2 Deficiency as an Oxidative Stress". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1011: 36–44. April 2004. doi:10.1196/annals.1293.004. PMID 15126281. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118765604/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0. Retrieved 2009-08-13. 
  86. ^ Martin PR, Singleton CK, Hiller-Sturmhöfel S (2003). "The role of thiamine deficiency in alcoholic brain disease". Alcohol Res Health 27 (2): 134–42. PMID 15303623. 
  87. ^ Butters N (1981). "The Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome: a review of psychological, neuropathological and etiological factors". Curr Alcohol 8: 205–32. PMID 6806017. 
  88. ^ Bain PG, Findley LJ, Thompson PD, et al. (August 1994). "A study of hereditary essential tremor". Brain 117 ((Pt 4)): 805–24. doi:10.1093/brain/117.4.805. PMID 7922467. http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7922467. 
    Lou JS, Jankovic J (February 1991). "Essential tremor: clinical correlates in 350 patients". Neurology 41 (2 (Pt 1)): 234–8. PMID 1992367. 
    Wasielewski PG, Burns JM, Koller WC (1998). "Pharmacologic treatment of tremor". Mov Disord. 13 (Suppl 3): 90–100. doi:10.1002/mds.870131316. PMID 9827602. 
    Boecker H, Wills AJ, Ceballos-Baumann A, et al. (May 1996). "The effect of ethanol on alcohol-responsive essential tremor: a positron emission tomography study". Ann. Neurol. 39 (5): 650–8. doi:10.1002/ana.410390515. PMID 8619551. 
    "Setting a steady course for benign essential tremor". Johns Hopkins Med Lett Health After 50 11 (10): 3. December 1999. PMID 10586714. 
  89. ^ Lee-chiong, Teofilo (24 April 2008). Sleep Medicine: Essentials and Review. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 105. ISBN 0-19-530659-7. http://books.google.com/?id=s1F_DEbRNMcC&pg=PT105. 
  90. ^ Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ (March 2009). "Tests of causal links between alcohol abuse or dependence and major depression". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 66 (3): 260–6. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.543. PMID 19255375. http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19255375. 
  91. ^ Chignon JM, Cortes MJ, Martin P, Chabannes JP (1998). "[Attempted suicide and alcohol dependence: results of an epidemiologic survey]" (in French). Encephale 24 (4): 347–54. PMID 9809240. 
  92. ^ Ayd, Frank J. (31 May 2000). Lexicon of psychiatry, neurology, and the neurosciences. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Williams Wilkins. p. 349. ISBN 978-0-7817-2468-5. http://books.google.com/?id=ea_QVG2BFy8C. 
  93. ^ Appleby, Louis; Duffy, David; Ryan, Tony (25 Aug 2004). New Approaches to Preventing Suicide: A Manual For Practitioners. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1-84310-221-2. http://books.google.com/?id=d6Kw9GaJdzEC. 
  94. ^ Jasova D, Bob P, Fedor-Freybergh P (December 2007). "Alcohol craving, limbic irritability, and stress". Med Sci Monit. 13 (12): CR543–7. PMID 18049433. http://www.medscimonit.com/fulltxt.php?ICID=563763. Retrieved 2008-05-13. 
  95. ^ Young R, Sweeting H, West P (2008). "A longitudinal study of alcohol use and antisocial behaviour in young people". Alcohol Alcohol. 43 (2): 204–14. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agm147. PMC 2367698. PMID 17977868. http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17977868. Retrieved 2008-05-13. 
  96. ^ Marinkovic K; Oscar-Berman M, Urban T, O'Reilly CE, Howard JA, Sawyer K, Harris GJ (November 2009). "Alcoholism and dampened temporal limbic activation to emotional faces". Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33 (11): 1880–92. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01026.x. PMID 19673745. 
  97. ^ Wetterling T; Junghanns K (December 2000). "Psychopathology of alcoholics during withdrawal and early abstinence". Eur Psychiatry 15 (8): 483–8. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00519-8. PMID 11175926. 
  98. ^ Cowley DS (24). "Alcohol abuse, substance abuse, and panic disorder". Am J Med 92 (1A): 41S–8S. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(92)90136-Y. PMID 1346485. 
  99. ^ Cosci F; Schruers KR, Abrams K, Griez EJ (June 2007). "Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship". J Clin Psychiatry 68 (6): 874–80. doi:10.4088/JCP.v68n0608. PMID 17592911. 
  100. ^ a b Alcohol-Related Psychosis at eMedicine
  101. ^ Tien AY, Anthony JC (August 1990). "Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences". J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 178 (8): 473–80. doi:10.1097/00005053-199017880-00001. PMID 2380692. 
  102. ^ Terra MB, Figueira I, Barros HM (August 2004). "Impact of alcohol intoxication and withdrawal syndrome on social phobia and panic disorder in alcoholic inpatients". Rev Hosp Clin Fac Med Sao Paulo 59 (4): 187–92. doi:10.1590/S0041-87812004000400006. PMID 15361983. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0041-87812004000400006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en. 
  103. ^ Cohen SI (February 1995). "Alcohol and benzodiazepines generate anxiety, panic and phobias". J R Soc Med 88 (2): 73–7. PMC 1295099. PMID 7769598. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1295099. 
  104. ^ Cordain L, Bryan ED, Melby CL, Smith MJ (1 April 1997). "Influence of moderate daily wine consumption on body weight regulation and metabolism in healthy free-living males". J Am Coll Nutr 16 (2): 134–9. PMID 9100213. http://intl.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/16/2/134. 
  105. ^ Arif AA, Rohrer JE (2005). "Patterns of alcohol drinking and its association with obesity: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994". BMC Public Health 5: 126. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-5-126. PMC 1318457. PMID 16329757. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/5/126. 
  106. ^ National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2000). "Health risks and benefits of alcohol consumption". Alcohol Res Health 24 (1): 5–11. PMID 11199274. http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh24-1/05-11.pdf. 
  107. ^ Bode C, Bode JC (1997). "Alcohol's role in gastrointestinal tract disorders". Alcohol Health Res World 21 (1): 76–83. PMID 15706765. https://webapps.ou.edu/alcohol/docs/12EtohGastroinstestinalTractDisorders76.pdf. 
  108. ^ Freiberg MS, Cabral HJ, Heeren TC, Vasan RS, Curtis Ellison R (December 2004). "Alcohol consumption and the prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome in the US.: a cross-sectional analysis of data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey". Diabetes Care 27 (12): 2954–9. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.12.2954. PMID 15562213. http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/12/2954. 
  109. ^ Yoon YS, Oh SW, Baik HW, Park HS, Kim WY (1 July 2004). "Alcohol consumption and the metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: the 1998 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey". Am J Clin Nutr. 80 (1): 217–24. PMID 15213051. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/217. 
  110. ^ La Vecchia C, Decarli A, Ferraroni M, Negri E (September 1994). "Alcohol drinking and prevalence of self-reported gallstone disease in the 1983 Italian National Health Survey". Epidemiology 5 (5): 533–6. PMID 7986868. 
  111. ^ Leitzmann MF, Giovannucci EL, Stampfer MJ, et al. (May 1999). "Prospective study of alcohol consumption patterns in relation to symptomatic gallstone disease in men". Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 23 (5): 835–41. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04191.x. PMID 10371403. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=1999&volume=23&issue=5&spage=835. 
  112. ^ Sahi T, Paffenbarger RS, Hsieh CC, Lee IM (1 April 1998). "Body mass index, cigarette smoking, and other characteristics as predictors of self-reported, physician-diagnosed gallbladder disease in male college alumni". Am J Epidemiol. 147 (7): 644–51. PMID 9554603. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9554603. 
  113. ^ Simon JA, Grady D, Snabes MC, Fong J, Hunninghake DB (March 1998). "Ascorbic acid supplement use and the prevalence of gallbladder disease. Heart & Estrogen-Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group". J Clin Epidemiol 51 (3): 257–65. doi:10.1016/S0895-4356(97)80280-6. PMID 9495691. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435697802806. 
  114. ^ Barve A, Khan R, Marsano L, Ravindra KV, McClain C (2008). "Treatment of alcoholic liver disease". Ann Hepatol 7 (1): 5–15. PMID 18376362. 
  115. ^ Fehér J, Lengyel G (December 2008). "[Silymarin in the treatment of chronic liver diseases: past and future"] (in Hungarian). Orv Hetil 149 (51): 2413–8. doi:10.1556/OH.2008.28519. PMID 19073452. http://www.akademiai.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&doi=10.1556/OH.2008.28519. 
  116. ^ Voigt MD (February 2005). "Alcohol in hepatocellular cancer". Clin Liver Dis 9 (1): 151–69. doi:10.1016/j.cld.2004.10.003. PMID 15763234. http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/retrieve/pii/S1089-3261(04)00115-1. 
  117. ^ Morgan TR, Mandayam S, Jamal MM (November 2004). "Alcohol and hepatocellular carcinoma". Gastroenterology 127 (5 Suppl 1): S87–96. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2004.09.020. PMID 15508108. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016508504015999. 
  118. ^ Frossard JL, Steer ML, Pastor CM (January 2008). "Acute pancreatitis". Lancet 371 (9607): 143–52. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60107-5. PMID 18191686. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140-6736(08)60107-5. 
  119. ^ Bachmann K, Mann O, Izbicki JR, Strate T (November 2008). "Chronic pancreatitis--a surgeons' view". Med. Sci. Monit. 14 (11): RA198–205. PMID 18971885. 
  120. ^ Nair RJ, Lawler L, Miller MR (December 2007). "Chronic pancreatitis". Am Fam Physician 76 (11): 1679–88. PMID 18092710. 
  121. ^ Tattersall SJ, Apte MV, Wilson JS (July 2008). "A fire inside: current concepts in chronic pancreatitis". Intern Med J 38 (7): 592–8. doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.2008.01715.x. PMID 18715303. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=1444-0903&date=2008&volume=38&issue=7&spage=592. 
  122. ^ Hirvonen T, Pietinen P, Virtanen M, Albanes D, Virtamo J (15 July 1999). "Nutrient intake and use of beverages and the risk of kidney stones among male smokers". Am J Epidemiol. 150 (2): 187–94. PMID 10412964. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/150/2/187. 
  123. ^ Soucie JM, Coates RJ, McClellan W, Austin H, Thun M (1 March 1996). "Relation between geographic variability in kidney stones prevalence and risk factors for stones". Am J Epidemiol. 143 (5): 487–95. PMID 8610664. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/143/5/487. 
  124. ^ Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ (1 February 1996). "Prospective study of beverage use and the risk of kidney stones". Am J Epidemiol. 143 (3): 240–7. PMID 8561157. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8561157. 
  125. ^ Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ (1 April 1998). "Beverage use and risk for kidney stones in women". Ann Intern Med. 128 (7): 534–40. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-128-7-199804010-00003 (inactive 2010-03-16). PMID 9518397. http://www.annals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9518397. 
  126. ^ Taniguchi N, Kaneko S (November 1997). "[Alcoholic effect on male sexual function]" (in Japanese). Nippon Rinsho 55 (11): 3040–4. PMID 9396310. 
  127. ^ Fentiman, IS.; Fourquet, A.; Hortobagyi, GN. (Feb 2006). "Male breast cancer.". Lancet 367 (9510): 595–604. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68226-3. PMID 16488803. 
  128. ^ Gavaler, JS. (1998). "Alcoholic beverages as a source of estrogens.". Alcohol Health Res World 22 (3): 220–7. PMID 15706799. 
  129. ^ a b Weiss, JR.; Moysich, KB.; Swede, H. (Jan 2005). "Epidemiology of male breast cancer.". Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14 (1): 20–6. PMID 15668471. http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/14/1/20.long. 
  130. ^ Boffetta, P.; Hashibe, M. (Feb 2006). "Alcohol and cancer.". Lancet Oncol 7 (2): 149–56. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70577-0. PMID 16455479. 
  131. ^ Carlsson S, Hammar N, Grill V, Kaprio J (October 2003). "Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 20-year follow-up of the Finnish twin cohort study". Diabetes Care 26 (10): 2785–90. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.10.2785. PMID 14514580. http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/10/2785. 
  132. ^ J Hong1, R R Smith, A E Harvey and N P Núñez Alcohol consumption promotes insulin sensitivity without affecting body fat levels International Journal of Obesity (2009) 33, 197–203; doi:10.1038/ijo.2008.266
  133. ^ Star VL, Hochberg MC (February 1993). "Prevention and management of gout". Drugs 45 (2): 212–22. doi:10.2165/00003495-199345020-00004. PMID 7681372. 
  134. ^ Eggebeen AT (September 2007). "Gout: an update". Am Fam Physician 76 (6): 801–8. PMID 17910294. 
  135. ^ http://arc.org.uk/arthinfo/patpubs/6033/6033.asp
  136. ^ Myllykangas-Luosujärvi R, Aho K, Kautiainen H, Hakala M (January 2000). "Reduced incidence of alcohol related deaths in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis". Ann Rheum Dis. 59 (1): 75–6. doi:10.1136/ard.59.1.75. PMC 1752983. PMID 10627433. http://ard.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10627433. 
  137. ^ Nagata C, Fujita S, Iwata H, et al. (May 1995). "Systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control epidemiologic study in Japan". Int J Dermatol. 34 (5): 333–7. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4362.1995.tb03614.x. PMID 7607794. 
  138. ^ Aho K, Heliövaara M (December 1993). "Alcohol, androgens and arthritis". Ann Rheum Dis. 52 (12): 897. doi:10.1136/ard.52.12.897-b. PMC 1005228. PMID 8311545. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1005228. 
  139. ^ Hardy CJ, Palmer BP, Muir KR, Sutton AJ, Powell RJ (August 1998). "Smoking history, alcohol consumption, and systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study". Ann Rheum Dis. 57 (8): 451–5. doi:10.1136/ard.57.8.451. PMC 1752721. PMID 9797548. http://ard.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/57/8/451. 
  140. ^ Källberg H, Jacobsen S, Bengtsson C, et al. (July 2008). "Alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis; Results from two Scandinavian case-control studies". Ann Rheum Dis. 68 (2): 222–7. doi:10.1136/ard.2007.086314. PMC 2937278. PMID 18535114. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2937278. 
  141. ^ Jonsson IM, Verdrengh M, Brisslert M, et al. (January 2007). "Ethanol prevents development of destructive arthritis". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104 (1): 258–63. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608620104. PMC 1765445. PMID 17185416. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1765445. 
  142. ^ Myllykangas-Luosujärvi R, Aho K, Kautiainen H, Hakala M (January 2000). "Reduced incidence of alcohol related deaths in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis". Ann Rheum Dis. 59 (1): 75–6. doi:10.1136/ard.59.1.75. PMC 1752983. PMID 10627433. http://ard.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/59/1/75. 
  143. ^ Voigt LF, Koepsell TD, Nelson JL, Dugowson CE, Daling JR (September 1994). "Smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis". Epidemiology 5 (5): 525–32. PMID 7986867. 
  144. ^ Siris ES, Miller PD, Barrett-Connor E, et al. (December 2001). "Identification and fracture outcomes of undiagnosed low bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment". JAMA 286 (22): 2815–22. doi:10.1001/jama.286.22.2815. PMID 11735756. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11735756. 
  145. ^ Rapuri PB, Gallagher JC, Balhorn KE, Ryschon KL (1 November 2000). "Alcohol intake and bone metabolism in elderly women". Am J Clin Nutr. 72 (5): 1206–13. PMID 11063451. http://intl.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/5/1206. 
  146. ^ Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E (June 1993). "A prospective study of alcohol consumption and bone mineral density". BMJ 306 (6891): 1506–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.306.6891.1506. PMC 1677960. PMID 8518677. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1677960. 
  147. ^ a b Ronis, MJ.; Wands, JR.; Badger, TM.; de la Monte, SM.; Lang, CH.; Calissendorff, J. (Aug 2007). "Alcohol-induced disruption of endocrine signaling.". Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31 (8): 1269–85. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00436.x. PMID 17559547. 
  148. ^ Peer, KS.; Newsham, KR. (2005). "A case study on osteoporosis in a male athlete: looking beyond the usual suspects.". Orthop Nurs 24 (3): 193–9; quiz 200–1. PMID 15928528. 
  149. ^ Kostović K, Lipozencić J (2004). "Skin diseases in alcoholics". Acta Dermatovenerol Croat 12 (3): 181–90. PMID 15369644. 
  150. ^ Abrar A. Qureshi; Patrick L. Dominguez; Hyon K. Choi; Jiali Han; Gary Curhan Alcohol Intake and Risk of Incident Psoriasis in US Women: A Prospective Study Arch Dermatology doi:10.1001/archdermatol.2010.204
  151. ^ Brenner H, Rothenbacher D, Bode G, Adler G (6 December 1997). "Relation of smoking and alcohol and coffee consumption to active Helicobacter pylori infection: cross sectional study". BMJ 315 (7121): 1489–92. PMC 2127930. PMID 9420488. http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/315/7121/1489. 
  152. ^ Aldoori WH, Giovannucci EL, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Wing AL, Willett WC (July 1997). "A prospective study of alcohol, smoking, caffeine, and the risk of duodenal ulcer in men". Epidemiology 8 (4): 420–4. doi:10.1097/00001648-199707000-00012. PMID 9209857. http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1044-3983&volume=8&issue=4&spage=420. 
  153. ^ Cohen S, Tyrrell DA, Russell MA, Jarvis MJ, Smith AP (September 1993). "Smoking, alcohol consumption, and susceptibility to the common cold". Am J Public Health 83 (9): 1277–83. doi:10.2105/AJPH.83.9.1277. PMC 1694990. PMID 8363004. http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/83/9/1277. 
  154. ^ Takkouche B, Regueira-Méndez C, García-Closas R, Figueiras A, Gestal-Otero JJ, Hernán MA (May 2002). "Intake of wine, beer, and spirits and the risk of clinical common cold". Am J Epidemiol. 155 (9): 853–8. doi:10.1093/aje/155.9.853. PMID 11978590. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/155/9/853. 
  155. ^ IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 44 Alcohol Drinking: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation
  156. ^ National Toxicology Program Alcoholic Beverage Consumption: Known to be a human carcinogen First listed in the Ninth Report on Carcinogens (2000)(PDF)
  157. ^ Burden of alcohol-related cancer substantial
  158. ^ BBC Drinking over recommended limit 'raises cancer risk' 8 April 2011
  159. ^ Madlen Schütze et al Alcohol attributable burden of incidence of cancer in eight European countries based on results from prospective cohort study BMJ 2011; 342:d1584 doi: 10.1136/bmj.d1584
  160. ^ WCRF Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective
  161. ^ New Scientist article "Alcohol's link to cancer explained"
  162. ^ Ulleland CN (May 1972). "The offspring of alcoholic mothers". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 197: 167–9. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1972.tb28142.x. PMID 4504588. 
  163. ^ Abel EL, Sokol RJ (January 1987). "Incidence of foetal alcohol syndrome and economic impact of FAS-related anomalies". Drug Alcohol Depend 19 (1): 51–70. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(87)90087-1. PMID 3545731. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0376-8716(87)90087-1. 

External links

v · d · eAlcohol and health
General Kranz Koelsch.jpg
Conditions
digestive system
cardiovascular system
Disorders
Interactions
Alcohol tolerance · Alcohol myopia · Aging · Breast cancer · Cancer · Family systems · Sex · Sleep · Weight · Short-term effects of alcohol/Long-term effects of alcohol · Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS)
Movements

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Поможем решить контрольную работу

Look at other dictionaries:

  • Short-term effects of alcohol — on the human body can take many forms. The drug alcohol, specifically ethanol, is a central nervous system depressant with a range of side effects. The amount and circumstances of consumption play a large part in determining the extent of… …   Wikipedia

  • long-term — W3 adj [usually before noun] continuing for a long period of time into the future, or relating to what will happen in the distant future ≠ ↑short term ▪ the long term future of the fishing industry ▪ the long term interests of the company the… …   Dictionary of contemporary English

  • Alcohol intoxication — Classification and external resources The Drunkenness of Noah by Michelangelo ICD 10 F …   Wikipedia

  • Alcohol abuse — Classification and external resources ICD 10 F10.1 ICD 9 305.0 MeSH …   Wikipedia

  • Alcohol and sex — Alcohol consumption has a number of effects on sexual intercourse and sexual behavior.[1] The effects of alcohol are a balance between its suppressive effects on sexual physiology, which will decrease sexual activity, and its suppression of… …   Wikipedia

  • Alcohol withdrawal syndrome — is the set of symptoms seen when an individual reduces or stops alcohol consumption after prolonged period of excessive alcohol intake. Excessive misuse of alcohol leads to tolerance, physical dependence and an alcohol withdrawal… …   Wikipedia

  • Alcohol and cancer — Total recorded alcohol per capita consumption (15+), in litres of pure alcohol.[1] Alcohol is associated with an increased risk of a number of cancers.[2] 3.6% of all cancer cases and 3.5% of cancer deaths worldwide are attributable to consu …   Wikipedia

  • Alcohol — This article is about the generic chemistry term. For the kind of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, see Ethanol. For beverages containing alcohol, see Alcoholic beverage. For other uses, see Alcohol (disambiguation) …   Wikipedia

  • Effects of cannabis — Short term effects of cannabis Classification and external resources ICD 10 F12.0 The effects of cannabis are caused by cannabinoids, most notably tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Cannabis has both psychological and physiological effects on the human… …   Wikipedia

  • Effects of MDMA on the human body — This article discusses the effects of MDMA (3,4 methylenedioxy N methylamphetamine, commonly known as Ecstasy ) on the human brain and body. More general information on MDMA, such as history and legal status, can be found in the main entry for… …   Wikipedia

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
… Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”