Abdul Hamid II

Abdul Hamid II
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Caliph
Reign	1876–1909
Period	Decline of the Ottoman Empire
Full Name	HIM Grand Sultan and Caliph Abdülhamid II
Born	22 September 1842(1842-09-22)
Died	10 February 1918(1918-02-10) (aged 75)
Predecessor	Murad V
Successor	Mehmed V
Royal House	House of Osman
Dynasty	Ottoman Dynasty

His Imperial Majesty, The Sultan Abdülhamid II, Emperor of the Ottomans, Caliph of the Faithful (also known as Abdul Hamid II or Abd Al-Hamid II Khan Ghazi) (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, Turkish: İkinci Abdülhamit) (21/22 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. Abdülhamid II was the last Ottoman Sultan to rule with absolute power, and was succeeded by Mehmed V. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.^[1]

Politics

Abdülhamid II was born in Topkapı Palace in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople). He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I and one of his many wives, the Valide Sultan Tirimüjgan, 16 August 1819 – Constantinople, Feriye Palace, 3 October 1852), originally named Virjin.^[2] He later also became the adoptive son of another of his father's wives, Valide Sultan Rahime Perestu. He was a skilled carpenter and personally crafted most of his own furniture, which can be seen today at the Yıldız Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. Abdülhamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many opera classics. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mızıka-ı Hümayun which he established, and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yıldız Palace which was recently restored and featured in the film Harem Suare (1999) of the Turkish-Italian director Ferzan Özpetek, which begins with the scene of Abdülhamid II watching a performance. Unlike many other Ottoman sultans, Abdülhamid II traveled to distant countries. Nine years before he took the throne, he accompanied his uncle Sultan Abdülaziz on his visit to Austria, France and England in 1867.

Accession to throne, 1876

Young Abdulhamid

He succeeded to the throne following the deposition of his brother Murad on 31 August 1876.^[3] He himself was deposed in favor of his brother Mehmed in 1909. His brother had no real powers and continued as a figurehead only. At his accession, some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque where he was given the Sword of Osman. Most people expected Abdülhamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer.

He took over default in the public funds, and an empty treasury.

He was made the 1,058th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1880 and the 202nd Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Tower and Sword in 1882.

First Constitutional Era, 1876–1877

See also: First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire) and Young Ottomans

He did not plan and express any goal in his accession speech, however he worked with the Young Ottomans to realize some form of constitutional arrangements^[4] This new form in its theoretical space could help to realize a liberal transition with Islamic arguments, which could balance the Tanzimat's imitation of western norms. The political structure of western norms did not work with the centuries-old Ottoman political culture, even if the pressure from the Western world was enormous to adapt western ways of political decision. On 23 December 1876, under the shadow of the 1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the war with Serbia and Montenegro and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion, he declared the constitution and its parliament.^{[citation needed]}

The international Constantinople Conference which met at Istanbul(Constantinople)^[5][6] towards the end of 1876 was surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but European powers at the conference rejected the constitution as a significant change; they preferred the 1856 constitution, the Hatt-ı Hümayun and 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane, but questioned whether there was need for a parliament to act as an official voice of the people.

In any event, like many other would-be reforms of the Ottoman Empire change proved to be nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war. However, everything changed when the British fleet approached the capital from the Sea of Marmara. The Sultan suspended (but did not abolish) the constitution and Midhat Pasha, its author, was exiled soon afterwards. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire.

Disintegration

Seal of Sultan Abdul Hamid II

Abdul Hamid's biggest fear, near dissolution, was coming to effect by the Russians declaration of war on 24 April 1877 and following Russian victory by February 1878. Abdul Hamid did not find any help. The chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement, and the British Empire, though still fearing the Russian threat to British dominance in Southern Asia, did not involve itself in the conflict because of public opinion following the reports of Ottoman brutality in putting down the Bulgarian uprising. The Treaty of San Stefano, a treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed at the end of the war, imposed harsh terms: the Ottoman Empire gave independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; to grant autonomy to Bulgaria; to institute reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and to cede the Dobruja and parts of Armenia to Russia, which would also be paid an enormous indemnity.

As Russia could dominate the newly independent states, her influence in Southeastern Europe was greatly increased by the Treaty of San Stefano. Due to the insistence of the Great Powers (especially the United Kingdom), the treaty was later revised at the Congress of Berlin so as to reduce the great advantages acquired by Russia. In exchange of these favors, Cyprus was "rented" to Britain in 1878 while the British forces occupied Egypt and Sudan in 1882 with the pretext of "bringing order" to those provinces. Cyprus, Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces "on paper" until 1914, when Britain officially annexed those territories in response to the Ottoman participation in World War I at the side of the Central Powers.

• There was also trouble in Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed. Abdülhamid mishandled relations with Urabi Pasha, and as a result Great Britain gained virtual control over Egypt by sending its troops with the pretext of "bringing order".
• There were problems on the Greek frontier and in Montenegro, where the European powers were determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into effect.
• The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia was another blow. The creation of an independent and powerful Bulgaria was viewed as a serious threat to the Ottoman Empire. For many years Abdülhamid had to deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize either Russian or German wishes.

Crete was granted extended privileges, but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification with Greece. In early 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrow Ottoman rule in the island. This act was followed by war, in which the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece (see the Greco-Turkish War (1897)). But a few months later Crete was taken over en depot by England, France, and Russia. Prince George of Greece was appointed as ruler and Crete was also lost to the Ottoman Empire.

Securing Germany's support

Bodo-Borries von Ditfurth (1852–1915)

The Triple Entente – that is, the United Kingdom, France and Russia – maintained strained relations with the Ottoman Empire. Abdülhamid and his close advisors believed the empire should be treated as an equal player by these great powers. In the Sultan's view, the Ottoman Empire was a European empire, distinct for having more Muslims than Christians. Abdülhamid and his divan viewed themselves as modern. However, their actions were often construed by Europeans as exotic or uncivilized.^[7]

Abdülhamid now viewed the new German Empire as a possible friend of the empire. Kaiser Wilhelm II was twice hosted by Abdülhamid in Istanbul; first on 21 October 1889, and nine years later, on 5 October 1898 (Wilhelm II later visited Istanbul for a third time, on 15 October 1917, as a guest of Mehmed V). German officers (like Baron von der Goltz and von Ditfurth) were employed to oversee the reorganization of the Ottoman army.

German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. Abdülhamid tried to take more of the reins of power into his own hands, for he distrusted his ministers. Germany's friendship was not disinterested, and had to be fostered with railway and loan concessions. In 1899 a significant German desire, the construction of a Berlin-Baghdad railway, was granted.

Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany also requested the Sultan's help when having trouble with Muslims. During the Boxer Rebellion, the Chinese Muslim Kansu Braves fought against the German Army repeatedly, routing them along with the other 8 nation alliance forces at the First intervention, Seymour Expedition, China 1900. It was only on the second attempt in the Gasalee Expedition did the Alliance manage to get through to battle the Chinese Muslim troops at the Battle of Peking. Kaiser Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested the Caliph Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire to find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid II agreed to the Kaiser's demands and sent Enver Pasha to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time.^[8]

2nd Constitutional Era, 1908

See also: Young Turk Revolution, Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire), and Young Turks

The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia, together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.

In the summer of 1908 the Young Turk revolution broke out and Abdülhamid, upon learning that the troops in Salonica were marching on Istanbul (23 July), at once capitulated. On the 24th an irade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1876; the next day, further irades abolished espionage and censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners.

On 17 December, Abdülhamid opened the Turkish parliament with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been "temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."

Countercoup, 1909

See also: Countercoup (1909), 31 March Incident, and Adana massacre

The new attitude of the sultan did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude towards the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909 known as 31 Mart Vakası, when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative public upheaval in the capital overthrew the cabinet. The government, restored by soldiers from Salonica, decided on Abdülhamid's deposition, and on 27 April his brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as Sultan Mehmed V.

The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists in the context of the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province.^[9]

Ideology and Progress

Reforms

Most people expected Abdülhamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer. In the event, like many other would-be reformers of the Ottoman Empire, change proved to be nearly impossible. Default in the public funds, an empty treasury, the 1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the war with Serbia and Montenegro and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion all proved good reasons not to undertake any significant changes.

There were many setbacks:

• Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control over the national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, a large portion of the empire's revenues were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders.

Over the years Abdülhamid succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and he concentrated much of the administration of the Empire into his own hands at Yıldız Palace. But internal dissension was not reduced. Crete was constantly in turmoil. The Greeks living within the Ottoman Empire's borders were dissatisfied, as were the Armenians.

His distrust for the reformist admirals of the Ottoman navy (whom he suspected of plotting against him and trying to bring back the 1876 constitution) and his subsequent decision to lock the Ottoman fleet (which ranked as the 3rd largest fleet in the world during the reign of his predecessor Abdülaziz) inside the Golden Horn caused the loss of Ottoman overseas territories and islands in North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea during and after his reign.^[10]

Question of Islam

See also: Ottoman Caliphate

The Caliph of Islam, Ghazi Sultan Abd Al-Ḥamīd-i sânî II Khan, عبد الحميد ثانی

Abdülhamid recognized that the ideas Tanzimat could not bring the disparate peoples of the empire to common identity, such as Ottomanism. The Russia's pan-Slavism, pan-Hellennism, was stronger than Ottomanism, in the Ottoman Empire. Abdülhamid tried to hold on formulation of a new and more relevant ideological principle. Ottoman sultans beginning with 1517 were also Caliphs. He wanted to put forward that fact, so he emphasized the Ottoman Caliphate.

Abdülhamid always resisted the pressure of the European powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against aggressive Christendom. Panislamic propaganda was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire, which were often seen as an obstacle to government, were curtailed. Along with the strategically important Istanbul-Baghdad Railway, the Istanbul-Medina Railway was also completed -making the trip to Hajj more efficient- though there was still a 160-mile (260 km) camel ride to get to Mecca. Emissaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the Caliph's supremacy. During his rule, Abdülhamid refused Theodor Herzl's offers to pay down a substantial portion of the Ottoman debt in exchange for a charter allowing the Zionists access to Palestine.

Abdülhamid's appeals to Muslim sentiment were powerless against widespread disaffection within his Empire due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Muslim population only by a system of delation and espionage, and by wholesale arrests. After his rule began, Abdülhamid became obsessed with the paranoia of being assassinated and withdrew himself into the fortified seclusion of the Yıldız Palace.

Armenian Question

Main articles: Yildiz Attempt, Armenian Rebellions, and Hamidian massacres

Political cartoon portraying Sultan Hamid as a butcher for his harsh actions against the Armenians.

Starting around 1890 the Armenians began demanding the implementation the reforms which were promised to them at the Berlin conference.^[11] Unrest occurred in 1892 and 1893 at Merzifon and Tokat. Armenian groups staged protests and were met by violence. Sultan Abdülhamid did not hesitate to put down these revolts with harsh methods, possibly to show the unshakable power of the monarch, and often used the local Muslims (in most cases the Kurds) against the Armenians.^[12] According to Turkish scholar Taner Akçam, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany claimed that eighty thousand Armenians had been killed, and French reports claimed that two hundred thousand had been killed.^[13] In 1907, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation attempted to assassinate him with a car bombing during a public appearance, but the Sultan delayed for a minute and the bomb went off early, killing 26, wounding 58 (of which 4 died at hospital) and demolishing 17 cars in the process. Surviving the assassination, he pardoned the assassin.

Deposition and aftermath

The mausoleum (türbe) of Sultans Mahmud II, Abdulaziz, and Abdul Hamid II, located at Divan Yolu street.

The ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica. In 1912, when Salonica fell to Greece, he was returned to captivity in Constantinople. He spent his last days studying, carpentering and writing his memoirs in custody at Beylerbeyi Palace in the Bosphorus, where he died on 10 February 1918, just a few months before his brother, the Sultan. He was buried in Constantinople. Abdülhamid was the last relatively authoritative Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He presided over thirty three years of decline. The Ottoman Empire had long been acknowledged as the Sick Man of Europe by its enemies, the British, French and most European countries excluding Germany, Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary.

Pictures from Empire

Abdülhamid commissioned thousands of photographs of his empire. Fearful of assassination, he did not travel often (though still more than many previous rulers) and photographs provided visual evidence of what was taking place in his realm. The Sultan presented large gift albums of photographs to various governments and heads of state, including the United States (William Allen, "The Abdul Hamid II Collection," History of Photography eight (1984): 119–45.) and Great Britain (M. I. Waley and British Library, "Sultan Abdulhamid II Early Turkish Photographs in 51 Albums from the British Library on Microfiche" (Zug, Switzerland: IDC, 1987). The American collection is housed in the Library of Congress and has been digitized. *Ottoman Empire photographs at the Library of Congress

Personal life

Here is a sample of his handwritten poetry, which was taken from the book "My Father Abdul Hameed," written by his daughter Ayşe Sultan

Abdülhamid II was born at Çırağan Palace, Ortaköy, or at Topkapı Palace, both in Constantinople, the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I and one of his many wives, Tîr-î-Müjgan Sultan, (Yerevan, 16 August 1819 – Constantinople, Feriye Palace, 2 November 1853), originally named Virjin, an Armenian.^[14] He later also became the adoptive son of another of his father's wives, Valide Sultan Rahime Perestu. He was a skilled carpenter and personally crafted most of his own furniture, which can be seen today at the Yıldız Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace in Constantinople. Abdülhamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many opera classics. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mızıka-ı Hümayun which he established, and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yıldız Palace which was recently restored and featured in the film Harem Suare (1999) of the Turkish-Italian director Ferzan Özpetek, which begins with the scene of Abdülhamid II watching a performance.

In the opinion of F. A. K. Yasamee:^[15]

He was a striking amalgam of determination and timidity, of insight and fantasy, held together by immense practical caution and an instinct for the fundamentals of power. He was frequently underestimated. Judged on his record, he was a formidable domestic politician and an effective diplomat^[16]

He was also a good wrestler of Yağlı güreş and a 'patron saint' of the wrestlers. He organised wrestling tournaments in the empire and selected wrestlers were invited to the palace. Abdülhamid personally tried the sportsmen and good ones remained in the palace.

Poetry

The Tughra (Signature) of Abdülhamid – on right "el Ghazi" (the veteran)^[17]

Abdülhamid was also a poet just like many other Ottoman sultans. One of the sultan's poems translates thus:

My Lord I know you are the Dear One (Al-Aziz)

... And no one but you are the Dear One
You are the One, and nothing else
My God take my hand in these hard times

My God be my helper in this critical hour

He was extremely fond of Sherlock Holmes novels.^[18]

First marriage and issue

He married firstly in Constantinople on 15 November 1868 to Georgian HH Bedrifelek Kadin Efendi (Poti, 4 January 1851 – Constantinople, Yıldız Palace, 6 February 1930), and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Selim Osmanoğlu Efendi Constantinople, Beşiktaş, Beşiktaş Palace, 11 January 1870 – Beirut, 4 May 1937 and buried in Damascus), married at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 4 June 1886 to Abkhazian HH Deryal Hanım Efendi (Sukhumi, Abkhazia, 10 February 1870 – Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 27 December 1904), and had a daughter, married at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 30 June 1905 to HH Nilüfer Eflâkyer Hanım Efendi (Artvin, 1 May 1887 – Beirut, 1930), and had a son, and married at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 29 March 1910 to HH Pervin Dürrüyekta Hanım Efendi (Adapazarı, 6 June 1894 – Lebanon, 1969 and buried there), without issue:
  • HIH Princess Emine Nemika Esin Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 26 April 1887 – Istanbul, 6 September 1969), married and have issue
  • HIH Prince Şehzade Abdul Kerim Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 26 June 1906 – New York City, 3 August 1935), married at Aleppo on 24 February 1930 and divorced in 1931 HH Nimet Hanım Efendi (Damascus, 25 December 1911 – Damascus, 4 August 1981), and had two sons:
    • HIH Prince Şehzade Dündar Aliosman Efendi (b. Damascus, 30 December 1930), married to HH Yüsra Hanım Efendi (b. 1927), without issue
    • HIH Prince Şehzade Harun Osmanoğlu Efendi (b. Damascus, 10 February 1932), married to HH Farizet Darvich Hanım Efendi (b. 1947), and had:
      • HIH Prince Şehzade Orhan Osmanoğlu Efendi (b. Damascus, 25 August 1963), married on 22 December 1985 to HH Nuran Yıldız Hanım Efendi (b. 1967), and had one son and four daughters:
        • HIH Princess Nilhan Osmanoğlu Sultan (b. Istanbul, 25 April 1987)
        • HIH Prince Şehzade Yavuz Selim Osmanoğlu Efendi (b. Istanbul, 22 February 1989)
        • HIH Princess Nilüfer Osmanoğlu Sultan (b. Istanbul, 5 May 1995)
        • HIH Princess Berna Osmanoğlu Sultan (b. Istanbul, 1 October 1998)
        • HIH Princess Asyahan Osmanoğlu Sultan (b. Istanbul, ... ... 2004)
      • HIH Princess Nurhan Osmanoğlu Sultan (b. Damascus, 20 November 1973), married firstly in Istanbul on 15 April 1994 and divorced HE Damat Samir Hashem Beyefendi (b. 24 January 1959), without issue, and married secondly to HE Damat Muhammed Ammar Sagherji Beyefendi (b. 1972), and had one son and one daughter:
        • HH Prince Sultanzade Muhammed Halil Sagherji Beyefendi (b. 2002)
        • HH Princess Sara Sagherji Hanımsultan (b. 2004)
      • HIH Prince Şehzade Abdulhamid Kayıhan Osmanoğlu Efendi (b. 4 August 1979)
        • HIH Prince Şehzade Muhammed Harun Osmanoğlu Efendi (b. 2007)
• HIH Princess Zekiye Sultan (Dolmabahçe Palace, 21 January 1872 – Pau, 13 July 1950 and buried there), married at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 20 April 1889 to HE Damat Ali Nureddin Pasha Beyefendi (1867–1953), created Damat in 1889, and had issue:
  • HH Princess Ulviye Shükriye Hanımsultan (1890 – 23 February 1893)
  • HH Princess Fatima Aliye Hanımsultan (1891 – Istanbul, 14 April 1972), unmarried and without issue
• HIH Prince Şehzade Ahmed Nuri Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 11 February 1878 – Nice, August 1944), married at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, in 1900 to HH Fahriye Hanım Efendi (Istanbul, 1883 – Nice, 1940 and buried in Damascus), without issue

Second marriage and issue

He married secondly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 2 September 1875 to Caucasian HH Biydâr Kadin Efendi (Caucasus, 5 May 1858 – Erenköy, Asia Minor, 1 January 1918), and had:

• HIH Princess Naime Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 4 September 1875 – Tirana, 1945), married at Istanbul, Ortaköy, Ortaköy Palace, on 17 March 1898 and divorced in 1904 HE Damat Mehmed Kemaleddin Pasha Beyefendi (1869–1920), created Damat in 1898, title removed on his divorce in 1904, and had:
  • HH Prince Beyzade Mehmed Cahid Osman Beyefendi (Istanbul, Ortaköy, Ortaköy Palace, January 1899 – Istanbul, 30 March 1977 and buried there), married firstly in January 1922 to his cousin HIH Princess Dürriye Sultan (Istanbul, Dolmabahçe Palace, 3 August 1905 – Halki, 15 July 1922), without issue, and married secondly to HH Levrens Hadjer Hussein Hanım Efendi, and had issue:
    • Bulent Osman Bey (b. Nice, 2 May 1930), married at Libreville on 8 November 1962 to French Jeannine Crété, and had issue:
      • Rémy Gengiz Ossmann (b. 1963), married on 16 November 19?? to Florence Weber, and had issue:
        • Sélim Ossmann (b. 1993)
  • HH HH Princess Adile Hanımsultan Hanım Efendi (Istanbul, Ortaköy, Ortaköy Palace, 12 November 1900 – February 1979), married at Üsküdar on 4 May 1922 and divorced in 1928 her cousin HIH Prince Şehzade Mahmud Sevket Efendi (Istanbul, Ortaköy, Ortaköy Palace, 20 July 1903 – 1 February 1973), excluded from the Imperial House in 1931, and had female issue
• HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Abdul Kadir Efendi (Istanbul, Beşiktaş, Dolmabahçe Palace, 16 January 1878 – Sofia, January or 16 March 1944 and buried there), Captain of the Ottoman Army, married firstly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 6 June 1907 to HH Princess Mihriban Hanım Efendi (Istanbul, 18 May 1890 – Cairo, 1956), without issue, married secondly at Kızıltoprak, Asia Minor, on 1 June 1913 and divorced in 1934 HH Hadice Macide Hanım Efendi (Adapazarı, 14 September 1899 – Vienna, 1934 and buried there), marriage not recognised by the Imperial House, and had two sons, married thirdly at Kızıltoprak, Asia Minor, on 5 February 1916 to HH Mesiyet Fatma Hanım Efendi (İzmit, 17 February 1902 – Istanbul, 13 November 1989), and had one son and two daughters, and married fourthly in Budapest on 4 July 1924 to HH Irene Mer Hanım Efendi, and had one son:
  • [Mehmed] Orhan II
  • HIH Prince Şehzade Ertughrul Necib Ali Efendi (Kızıltoprak, Asia Minor, 15 March 1915 – Vienna, 7 February 1994), married in Vienna on 14 August 1946 to Austrian HH Gertrude Emilia Tengler Hanım Efendi (Vienna, 25 May 1926 –), and had issue:
    • HIH Princess Margot Leyla Kadir Sultan (b. Vienna, 17 June 1947), married to Austrian HE Damat Werner Schnelle Beyefendi (b. 1942), and had one daughter:
      • HH Princess Katharina Alia Schnelle Hanımsultan (b. 1980)
    • HIH Prince Şehzade Roland Selim Kadir Efendi (b. Vienna, 5 May 1949), married in Salzburg in 1972 to HH Gerlinde ... Hanım Efendi (b. 1946), and had issue:
      • HIH Prince Şehzade René Osman Abdul Kadir Efendi (b. Salzburg, 23 August 1975)
      • HIH Prince Şehzade Daniel Adrian Hamid Kadir Efendi (b. 20 September 1977)
  • HIH Prince Şehzade Alaeddin Kadir Efendi (Kızıltoprak, Asia Minor, 2 January 1917 – Sofia, 26 November 1999), Titular Crown Prince of Turkey from 1994 to 1999, married to HH Lydia ... Hanım Efendi, and had issue:
    • HIH Princess Iskra Sultan (b. Sofia, 1949), married to Austrian HE Damat Joachim (Peter) Schlang Beyefendi (b. 1940), and had one daughter:
      • HH Princess Andrea Schlang Hanımsultan (b. 1974), married to Austrian Thomas Schüttfort (b. 1972), and had one son:
        • Niklas Peter Schüttfort (b. 1999)
  • HIH Princess Biydâr Sultan (Kızıltoprak, Asia Minor, 3 January 1924 – Budapest, August 1924 and buried there)
  • HIH Princess Safvet Neslişah Sultan (b. Budapest, 25 December 1925), married to HE Damat ... Reda Beyefendi, and had two sons:
    • HH Prince Sultanzade Salih Reda Beyefendi (b. 1955), unmarried and without issue
    • HH Prince Sultanzade Ömer Reda Beyefendi (b. 1959), married to Ceylan Fethiye Palay (b. 1971), and had two daughters:
      • Meziyet Dilara Reda Hanım (b. 1998)
      • Neslişah Reda Hanım (b. 2000)
  • HIH Prince Şehzade Osman Efendi (Budapest, 1925 – Budapest, 1934)

Third marriage and issue

He married thirdly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 10 April 1883 to Georgian HH Dilpesend Kadın Efendi (Tbilisi, 16 January 1865 – Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 5 October 1903), and had:

• HIH Princess Naile Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 9 January 1884 – Erenköy, Asia Minor, 25 October 1957), unmarried and without issue

Fourth marriage and issue

He married fourthly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 2 January 1885 to Azerbaijani HH Mezide Mestan Haseki Kadın Efendi (Ganja, 3 March 1869 – Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 21 January 1909), and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 19 December 1885 – New York City, 15 June 1949 and buried in Damascus), Captain of the Ottoman Army, Titular King of Albania in 1914, married firstly at Nişantaşı Palace, Pera (today Beyoğlu), on 7 June 1909 and divorced in 1919 Aliye Melek Nazlıyar Hanım Efendi (Adapazarı, 13 October 1892 – Ankara, 31 August 1976), daughter of Huseyin Bey, educated at Theresian Military Academy, Vienna, and École des Sciences Politiques, Paris, married secondly in Paris on 29 April 1925 and divorced in 1925 Dutch Georgina Leonora Barnard Mosselmans (Bergen op Zoom or The Hague, 23 August 1900–1969), daughter of Richard Frederick Hendrik Mosselmans and wife (who married secondly on 1 March 1926 to Fernand Comte Bertier de Sauvigny and thirdly on 18 August 1933 to Lord Sholto George Douglas (7 June 1872 – 6 April 1942), former husband of Loretta Mooney and son of the 9th Marquess of Queensberry), and married thirdly in London, Middlesex, on 3 July 1933 to Elsie Deming Jackson (New York City, 6 September 1879 – New York City, 12 May 1952), and by first wife he had:
  • HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Fahreddin Efendi (Nişantaşı, Nişantaşı Palace, Pera (today Beyoğlu), 26 November 1911 – New York City, 13 July 1968), who married in Paris on 31 August 1933 Greek HH Catherine Papadopoulos Hanım Efendi (Paris, 20 May 1914 – Athens, 15 June 1945), marriage not recognized by the Imperial House, without issue
  • Ertuğrul Osman V

Fifth marriage and issue

He married fifthly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 24 January 1893 to Caucasian HH Peyvesti Osman Haseki Kadın Efendi (Caucasus, 10 May 1873 – Paris, 1944 and buried there at Bobigny Cemetery), and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 14 August 1894 – Paris, 1 June 1952), married at Nişantaşı Palace, Pera (today Beyoğlu), on 4 June 1919 and divorced in 1923 his cousin HH HGlory Nabila Emine Halim Hanım Efendi (Istanbul, 1 June 1899 – Istanbul, 6 December 1979), and had issue:
  • HIH Princess Mihrishah Selcuk Sultan (Istanbul, 14 April 1920 – Monte Carlo, Monaco, 11 May 1980 and buried in Cairo), married firstly on 7 October 1940 to HE Damat Ahmed el-Djezuly Ratib Beyefendi (Alexandria – 1972), and had issue, and married secondly in Cairo on 7 April 1966 to Ismail Assem, without issue:
    • HH Princess Hatice Türkân Ratib Hanımsultan (b. Cairo, 1941), married to Hüseyin Fehmi (1941–2000), and had two sons:
      • Melek Fehmi (b. 1966), unmarried and without issue
      • Nesrin Fehmi (b. 1968), unmarried and without issue
    • HH Princess Mihrimah Ratib Hanımsultan (Cairo, 1943 – Cairo, 1946 and buried there)
    • HH Prince Sultanzade Beyzade Touran Ibrahim Ratib Beyefendi (b. Giza, 3 May 1950), married in Bogotá on 27 July 1974 to French Noblewoman Anne de Montozon de Leguilhac (b. Toulouse, 13 January 1947), and had issue:
      • Fatıma Nimet Selçuk Mahiveş Ratib Hanım (b. Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 11 July 1976)
      • Karim El-Djezouly Ratib Bey (b. Bogotá, 13 December 1978)

Sixth marriage and issue

He married sixthly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 10 May 1900 to Georgian HH Behice Maan Haseki Kadın Efendi (Batumi, 10 October 1882 – 22 October 1969), and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 22 June 1901 – December 1944), married at Maslak, Bosphorus, on 5 May 1919 to HH Fasriye Andelib Hanım Efendi (Adapazarı, 8 August 1902 – ?), without issue
• HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Badreddin Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 22 June 1901 – 13 October 1903)

Seventh marriage and issue

He married seventhly at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, on 4 November 1904 to HH Saliha Naciye Haseki Kadın Efendi (1887 – Erenköy, Asia Minor, 4 December 1923), and had:

• HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Abid Efendi (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 17 September 1905 – Beirut, 8 December 1973 and buried in Damascus), married in Tirana on 12 January 1936 and divorced in 1949 HH Princess Senije Zogu (Mati, 15 November 1908 – Cannes, 15 April 1969), sister of King Zog I, without issue
• HIH Princess Samiye Sultan (16 January 1908 – Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 24 January 1909)

Other marriages and issue

He married HH Nazikedâ Kadın Efendi and had:

• HIH Princess Ulviye Sultan (1868 – 5 October 1875)

He married an unknown wife, and had:

• HIH Princess Seniha Sultan (1885–1885)

He married Georgian HH Emsalinur Kadın Efendi (Tbilisi, 2 January 1866 – ?), and had:

• HIH Princess Sadiye Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 30 November 1886 – 20 November 1977), unmarried and without issue

He married Caucasian HH Müsfikâ Kadın Efendi (Hopa, Caucasus, 10 December 1867 – Istanbul, July 1961), and had:

• HIH Princess Ayşe Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 31 October 1887 – 11 August 1960), married at Nişantaşı, Nişantaşı Palace, Pera (today Beyoğlu), on 3 April 1921 to HH HE Damat Mushir Mehmed Ali Rauf Nami Pashazade Beyefendi (Istanbul, 1877 – Viroflay, Yvelines, 21 September 1937 and buried in Paris at Bobigny Cemetery), and had issue:
  • HH Prince Ömer Nami Osmanoğlu Beyefendi (1911 – ?), unmarried and without issue
  • HH Prince Osman Nami Osmanoğlu Beyefendi (1918–2010), married firstly to Adile Tanyeri (?–1958), and had three daughter, and married secondly to German Müşfika Rothraud Granzow (1934–), and had two daughters:
    • Mediha Şükriye Nami Hanım (b. 1947), unmarried and without issue
    • Fethiye Nimet Nami Bey (b. 1953), unmarried and without issue
    • Ayşe Adile Nami Hanım (b. 1958), married and without issue
    • Gül Nur Dorothee Nami Hanım (b. 1960),married and without issue
    • Sofia Ayten Nami Hanım (b. 1961), married Erman Kunter and had issue
      • Roksan Kunter (b.1985)
  • HH Prince Beyzade Sultanzade Abdülhamid Rauf Osmanoğlu Beyefendi (October 1921/1922 – 11 March 1981), unmarried and without issue

He married HH Sazkâr Haseki Kadın Efendi (8 May 1873 – ?), and had:

• HIH Princess Refia Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 15 June 1891 – Beirut, 1938), unmarried and without issue

He married an unknown wife, and had:

• HIH Princess Hadice Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 10 July 1897 – 13 February 1898)

He married an unknown wife, and had:

• HIH Princess Aliye Sultan (1900–1900)

He married Circassian HH Gwaschemasch'e Kadın Efendi (Istanbul, Çırağan Palace, 21 June 1877 – ?), and had:

• HIH Princess Cemile Sultan (Istanbul, Yıldız Palace, 22 December 1900 – 9 January 1901)

He married HH Safinaz Kadın Efendi, sister of HH Yıldız Kadın Efendi, a wife of Sultan Abdülaziz I, without issue

See also

• List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility
• Kansu Braves

References

1. ^ Kinross, Patrick (1977) The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire London: Perennial. ISBN 978-0-688-08093-8. p. 576.
2. ^ Freely, John – Inside the Seraglio, published 1999, Chapter 15: On the Shores of the Bosphorus
3. ^ Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 3
4. ^ Roderique H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire (Princeton, 1963)
5. ^ The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol.7, Edited by Hugh Chisholm, (1911), 3; Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire...
6. ^ Britannica, Istanbul:When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved to Ankara, and Constantinople was officially renamed Istanbul in 1930.
7. ^ Selim Deringil "The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909" p 139–150
8. ^ Kemal H. Karpat (2001). The politicization of Islam: reconstructing identity, state, faith, and community in the late Ottoman state. Oxford University Press US. p. 237. ISBN 00195136187. http://books.google.com/books?id=PvVlS3ljx20C&pg=PA237&dq=boxer+rebellion+muslims&hl=en&ei=97K8TPG1NcOAlAfe3MmWBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=boxer%20rebellion%20muslims&f=false. Retrieved 28 June 2010. 
9. ^ Creelman, James (22 August 1909). "THE SLAUGHTER OF CHRISTIANS IN ASIA MINOR". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00812FF3F5A15738DDDAB0A94D0405B898CF1D3. 
10. ^ http://www.dzkk.tsk.mil.tr/English/Tarihce.asp Turkish Naval History: The Period of the Navy Ministry
11. ^ Curios Information about Armenia – Armenia
12. ^ Constitutional Rights Foundation
13. ^ Akçam, Taner: A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility, transl. Paul Bessemer, Metropolitan Books, New York. 2006
14. ^ Freely, John – Inside the Seraglio, published 1999, Chapter 15: On the Shores of the Bosphorus
15. ^ Ottoman Diplomacy: Abdülhamid II and the Great Powers 1878–1888
16. ^ F. A. K. Yasamee. Ottoman Diplomacy: Abdülhamid II and the Great Powers 1878–1888 p.20
17. ^ Minkus New World-Wide Stamp Catalog (1974–75 ed.), Turkey, note preceding no. 144.
18. ^ Turner, Barry. Suez.1956 p.32–33

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Abd-ul-Hamid II". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• Adbul Hamid II Biography
• All Documents about Abdul Hamid in English from a Turkish Web Site

Further reading

• Akarli, Engin D. (2001). "The Tangled Ends of an Empire and Its Sultan". In Leila Tarazi Fawaz and C. A. Bayly (eds.). Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 261–284. ISBN 9780231114264. 
• Georgeon, François (2003). Abdülhamid II. Le sultan calife. Paris: Fayard. 
• Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel K. (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521291668. 
• Yasamee, F. A. K. (1996). Ottoman Diplomacy: Abdülhamid II and the Great Powers, 1878–1888. Istanbul: ISIS. ISBN 9789754280883. 

External links

• II. Abdul Hamid Forum in English II. Abdul Hamid Forum in English
• II. Abdülhamit Dönemi Olayları – ittihat Ve Terakki Ödev Sitesi
• US Library of Congress Abdul Hamid II Photo Collection – about 1,800 photographs mounted in albums, ca. 1880–1893
•  "Abdul-Hamid II.". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. 

Abdul Hamid II House of Osman Born: 21 September 1842 Died: 10 February 1918
Regnal titles
Preceded by Murad V	Sultan of the Ottoman Empire 31 Aug 1876 – 27 Apr 1909	Succeeded by Mehmed V
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Murad V	Caliph of Islam 31 Aug 1876 – 27 Apr 1909	Succeeded by Mehmed V

Persondata
Name	Hamid, Abdul
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	22 September 1842
Place of birth
Date of death	10 February 1918
Place of death