Evolutionary medicine

Evolutionary medicine
Charles Darwin’s daughter Anne, “the joy of the household” died aged 10 due to tuberculosis.
The bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis could kill her as it had evolved to subvert the protection offered by her immune defenses

Evolutionary medicine or Darwinian medicine is the application of modern evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease. It provides a complementary scientific approach to the present mechanistic explanations that dominate medical science, and particularly modern medical education. Researchers in the field of evolutionary medicine have suggested that evolutionary biology should not simply be an optional topic in medical school, but instead should be taught as one of the basic medical sciences.[1]

Such adaptations concern:

Important researchers in evolutionary medicine include: Randolph M. Nesse, George C. Williams, Paul W. Ewald, James McKenna, and Rainer H. Straub.

Contents

History

Charles Darwin did not discuss the implications of his work for medicine, though biologists quickly appreciated in the germ theory of disease its implications for understanding the evolution of pathogens, and an organism’s need to defend against them.

Medicine, in turn, ignored evolution, and instead focused (as done in the hard sciences) upon proximate mechanical causes.

medicine has modelled itself after a mechanical physics, deriving from Galileo, Newton, and Descartes…. As a result of assuming this model, medicine is mechanistic, materialistic, reductionistic, linear-causal, and deterministic (capable of precise predictions) in its concepts. It seeks explanations for diseases, or their symptoms, signs, and cause in single, materialistic— i.e., anatomical or structural (e.g., in genes and their products)— changes within the body, wrought directly (linearly), for example, by infectious, toxic, or traumatic agents.[2] p. 510

George C. Williams was the first to apply evolutionary theory to health in the context of senescence.[3] Also in the 1950s, John Bowlby approached the problem of disturbed child development from an evolutionary perspective upon attachment.

An important theoretical development was Nikolaas Tinbergen’s distinction made originally in ethology between evolutionary and proximate mechanisms.[4]

Randolph Nesse summarizes its relevance to medicine:

all biological traits need two kinds of explanation, both proximate and evolutionary. The proximate explanation for a disease describes what is wrong in the bodily mechanism of individuals affected by it. An evolutionary explanation is completely different. Instead of explaining why people are different, it explains why we are all the same in ways that leave us vulnerable to disease. Why do we all have wisdom teeth, an appendix, and cells that can divide out of control?[5]

The paper of Paul Ewald in 1980, “Evolutionary Biology and the Treatment of Signs and Symptoms of Infectious Disease”,[6] and that of Williams and Nesse in 1991, “The Dawn of Darwinian Medicine”[7] were key developments. The latter paper “draw a favorable reception”,[8]page x and led to a book, Why We Get Sick (published as Evolution and healing in the UK). In 2008, an online journal started: Evolution and Medicine Review.

Pathogens

The adaptive evolution of bacteria, viruses, other microbes and parasites plays a central role in medicine since this process is needed to understand issues such as antibiotic resistance,[9] pathogen virulence.[10] and pathogen subversion of the immune system.[11]

Antibiotic resistance

Microorganisms evolve resistance through natural selection acting upon random mutation. Once a gene conferring resistance arises to counteract an antibiotic, not only can that bacteria thrive, but it can spread that gene to other types of bacteria through horizontal gene transfer of genetic information by plasmid exchange. It is unclear whether the genetic information responsible for antibiotic resistance typically arises from an actual mutation, or is already present in the gene pool of the population of the organism in question.[citation needed]

For more details on this topic, see antibiotic resistance

Virulence

The effect of organisms upon their host can vary from being symbiotic commensals that are beneficial, to pathogens that reduce fitness. Many pathogens produce virulence factors that directly cause disease, or manipulate their host to allow them to thrive and spread. Since a pathogen’s fitness is determined by its success in transmitting offspring to other hosts, it was thought at one time, that virulence moderated and it evolved toward commensality. However, this view is now questioned by Ewald.

For more details on this topic, see virulence, virulence factors and optimal virulence

Immune evasion

The success of any pathogen depends upon its ability to evade host immunity. Therefore, pathogens evolve methods that enable them to infect a host, and then evade detection and destruction by its immune system. These include hiding within host cells, within a protective capsule (as with M. tuberculosis), secreting compounds that misdirect the host's immune response, binding its antibodies, rapidly changing surface markers, or masking them with the host’s own molecules.

For more details on this topic, see manipulation of the immune system by pathogens, and evasion of the innate immune system

Human adaptations

Adaptation works within constraints, makes compromises and tradeoffs, and occurs in the context of different forms of competition.[12]

Constraints

Adaptations can only occur if they are evolvable. Some adaptations which would prevent ill health are therefore not possible.

  • DNA cannot be totally prevented from undergoing somatic replication corruption; this means that cancer, which is caused by somatic mutations, can never be completely eliminated by natural selection.
  • Humans cannot biosynthesize Vitamin C, and so risk scurvy, Vitamin C deficiency disease, if dietary intake of the vitamin is insufficient.
  • Retinal neurons and their axon output have evolved to be inside the layer of retinal pigment cells. This creates a constraint on the evolution of the visual system such that the optic nerve is forced to exit the retina through a point called the optic disc. This in turn creates a blind spot. More importantly, it makes vision vulnerable to increased pressure within the eye (glaucoma) since this cups and damages the optic nerve at this point, resulting in impaired vision.

Other constraints occur as the byproduct of adaptive innovations.

Trade-offs and conflicts

One constraint upon selection is that different adaptations can conflict, which requires a compromise between them to ensure an optimal cost-benefit tradeoff.

Competition effects

Different forms of competition exist and these can shape the processes of genetic change.

Evolved defense mechanisms

Evolution has selected defense mechanisms that protect against injuries and infections.[8] These include

Management

Evolved defense mechanisms can be costly, due to increased energy use (fever increases BMR by 10-15% for each degree rise in body temperature), and due to the risk of damaging the body (vomiting can risk aspiration). A fitness advantage therefore exists in deploying defense mechanisms selectively only when the potential benefits outweigh such costs. Their deployment is controlled at several levels, including through biomolecular pathways using factors such as proinflammatory cytokines, and through higher neural top down processes in cerebral cortex areas such as the insular cortex. Neural control provides advantages in that deployment can be based on tradeoffs between costs and benefits that take into account relevant health circumstances. This evolved regulation functions as a health management system.[22]

“Diseases of civilization”

Humans evolved to live as simple hunter-gatherers in small tribal bands, a very different way of life and environment than that faced by contemporary humans.[23][24] This change makes present humans vulnerable to a number of health problems, termed “diseases of civilization” and “diseases of affluence”.

Diet

In contrast to the diet of early hunter-gatherers, the modern one contains high quantities of fat, salt, and refined sugars. These create health problems.[25][26][27]

Life expectancy

Exercise

Contemporary humans engage in little physical exercise compared to the physically active lifestyle engaged in by ancestral hunter-gatherers.[28][29][30][31][32] It has been proposed that since prolonged periods of sedentariness would have only occurred in early humans following illness or injury that it provides a cue for the body to engage in life-preserving metabolic and stress related responses such as inflammation that are now the cause of many chronic diseases.[33]

Cleanliness

Contemporary humans - due to medical treatment, frequent washing of clothing and the body, and improved sanitation - are mostly free of parasites, particularly intestinal ones. This causes problems in the proper development of the immune system.

Specific explanations

This is a partial list: all links here go to a section describing or debating its evolutionary origin.

Life stage related

Other

Evolutionary psychiatry / Clinical evolutionary psychology

As noted in the table below, adaptationist hypotheses regarding the etiology of psychological disorders are often based on analogies with evolutionary perspectives on medicine and physiological dysfunctions (see in particular, Randy Nesse and George C. Williams' book Why We Get Sick).[69] Evolutionary psychiatrists and psychologists suggest that some mental disorders likely have multiple causes.[70]

Possible Causes of Psychological 'Abnormalities' from an Adaptationist Perspective

Summary based on information in Buss (2011),[71] Gaulin & McBurney (2004),[72] Workman & Reader (2004)[73]
Possible cause Physiological Dysfunction Psychological Dysfunction
Functioning adaptation (adaptive defense) Fever / Vomiting

(functional responses to infection or ingestion of toxins)

 Mild depression or anxiety

(functional responses to mild loss or stress)
By-product of an adaptation(s) Intestinal gas

(byproduct of digestion of fiber)

 Sexual fetishes (?)

(possible byproduct of normal sexual arousal adaptations that have 'imprinted' on unusual objects or situations)
Adaptations with multiple effects Gene for malaria resistance, in homozygous form, causes sickle cell anemia Adaptation(s) for high levels of creativity may also predispose schizophrenia or bi-polar disorder

(adaptations with both positive and negative effects, perhaps dependent on alternate developmental trajectories)
Malfunctioning adaptation Allergies

(over-reactive immunological responses)

 Autism

(possible malfunctioning of theory of mind module)
Frequency-dependent morphs The two sexes / Different blood and immune system types Personality traits and personality disorders

(may represent alternative behavioral strategies dependent on the frequency of the strategy in the population)
Mismatch between ancestral & current environments Modern diet-related Type 2 Diabetes More frequent modern interaction with strangers (compared to family and close friends) may predispose greater incidence of depression & anxiety
Tails of normal (bell shaped) curve Very short or tall height Tails of the distribution of personality traits (e.g., extremely introverted or extroverted)

See several topic areas, and the associated references, below.

See also

Tree of life.svg Evolutionary biology portal

References

  1. ^ Nesse, RM et al. (2009). "Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Making evolutionary biology a basic science for medicine". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (PNAS) Suppl 1 (suppl_1): 1800–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906224106. PMC 2868284. PMID 19918069. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/11/12/0906224106. 
  2. ^ Weiner H (1 July 1998). "Notes on an evolutionary medicine". Psychosom Med 60 (4): 510–20. PMID 9710299. http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9710299. 
  3. ^ a b Williams GC (1957). "Pleiotropy, Natural Selection, and the Evolution of Senescence" (PDF). Evolution (Society for the Study of Evolution) 11 (4): 398–411. doi:10.2307/2406060. JSTOR 2406060. http://grad.bio.uci.edu/ecoevo/crauser/pdf_files/Williams%201957.pdf.  abstract
  4. ^ Tinbergen N (1963). "On Aims and Methods in Ethology" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20 (4): 410–433. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x. http://www.rockefeller.edu/bard/pdfs/week_02_tinbergen_on_aims_and_methods_of_ethology_zft_1963.pdf. 
  5. ^ Nesse RM (December 2008). "Evolution: medicine's most basic science". Lancet 372 (Suppl 1): S21–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61877-2. 
  6. ^ Ewald PW (September 1980). "Evolutionary biology and the treatment of signs and symptoms of infectious disease". J. Theor. Biol. 86 (1): 169–76. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(80)90073-9. PMID 7464170. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0022-5193(80)90073-9. 
  7. ^ Williams GC, Nesse RM (March 1991). "The dawn of Darwinian medicine". Q Rev Biol 66 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1086/417048. PMID 2052670. 
  8. ^ a b c Williams, George; Nesse, Randolph M. (1996). Why we get sick: the new science of Darwinian medicine. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74674-9. 
  9. ^ Stearns SC, Ebert D (December 2001). "Evolution in health and disease: work in progress". Q Rev Biol 76 (4): 417–32. doi:10.1086/420539. PMID 11783396. 
  10. ^ Wickham ME, Brown NF, Boyle EC, Coombes BK, Finlay BB (May 2007). "Virulence is positively selected by transmission success between mammalian hosts". Curr. Biol. 17 (9): 783–8. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.067. PMID 17442572. 
  11. ^ Finlay BB, McFadden G (February 2006). "Anti-immunology: evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens". Cell 124 (4): 767–82. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.034. PMID 16497587. 
  12. ^ a b Stearns SC (2005). "Issues in evolutionary medicine". Am. J. Hum. Biol. 17 (2): 131–40. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20105. PMID 15736177. 
  13. ^ Sagan, Dorion; Skoyles, John R. (2002). Up from dragons: the evolution of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 240–1. ISBN 0-07-137825-1. 
  14. ^ Aiello LC, Wheeler P (1995). "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis: The Brain and the Digestive System in Human and Primate Evolution". Current Anthropology 36 (2): 199–221. doi:10.1086/204350. 
  15. ^ Lieberman P (2007). "The Evolution of Human Speech: Its Anatomical and Neural Bases" (PDF). Current Anthropology 48 (1): 39–66. doi:10.1086/509092. http://www.cog.brown.edu/people/lieberman/pdfFiles/Lieberman%20P.%202007.%20The%20evolution%20of%20human%20speech,%20Its%20anatom.pdf. 
  16. ^ Howard RS, Lively CM (November 2004). "Good vs complementary genes for parasite resistance and the evolution of mate choice". BMC Evol Biol. 4: 48. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-48. PMC 543473. PMID 15555062. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=543473. 
  17. ^ Haig D (December 1993). "Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy". Q Rev Biol 68 (4): 495–532. doi:10.1086/418300. PMID 8115596. 
  18. ^ Schuiling GA (September 2000). "Pre-eclampsia: a parent-offspring conflict". J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 21 (3): 179–82. doi:10.3109/01674820009075626. PMID 11076340. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a791323828. 
  19. ^ Wedekind C, Seebeck T, Bettens F, Paepke AJ (June 1995). "MHC-dependent mate preferences in humans". Proc Biol Sci. 260 (1359): 245–9. doi:10.1098/rspb.1995.0087. PMID 7630893. 
  20. ^ Chaix R, Cao C, Donnelly P (2008). Przeworski, Molly. ed. "Is mate choice in humans MHC-dependent?". PLoS Genet. 4 (9): e1000184. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000184. PMC 2519788. PMID 18787687. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2519788. 
  21. ^ Crespi B, Badcock C (June 2008). "Psychosis and autism as diametrical disorders of the social brain". Behav Brain Sci 31 (3): 241–61; discussion 261–320. doi:10.1017/S0140525X08004214. PMID 18578904. 
  22. ^ a b Humphrey, Nicholas (2002). "19. Great Expectations: The Evolutionary Psychology of Faith-Healing and the Placebo Effect". The mind made flesh: essays from the frontiers of psychology and evolution. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 255–85. ISBN 0-19-280227-5. http://www.humphrey.org.uk/papers/2002GreatExpectations.pdf. 
  23. ^ Eaton, S. Boyd; Konner, M; Shostak, M (April 1988). "Stone agers in the fast lane: chronic degenerative diseases in evolutionary perspective". American Journal of Medicine 84 (4): 739–749. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(88)90113-1. PMID 3135745. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TDC-4CHHJPV-JS&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F1988&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1373610246&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3be6f571c1695ec3b31e7a198aecba87. Retrieved 2010-06-18. 
  24. ^ William, Knowler; Peter Bennett, Richard Hamman and Max Miller (1978). "Diabetes incidence and prevalence in Pima Indians: a 19-fold greater incidence than in Rochester, Minnesota". American Journal of Epidemiology 108 (6): 497–505. PMID 736028. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/108/6/497. Retrieved 2010-06-18. 
  25. ^ Eaton SB, Strassman BI, Nesse RM, Neel JV, Ewald PW, Williams GC, Weder AB, Eaton SB 3rd, Lindeberg S, Konner MJ, Mysterud I, Cordain L (2002). "Evolutionary health promotion" (PDF). Prev Med 34 (2): 109–18. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0876. PMID 11817903. http://www.thepaleodiet.com/articles/Health%20Promotion%20Paper.pdf. 
  26. ^ Eaton SB (2006). "The ancestral human diet: what was it and should it be a paradigm for contemporary nutrition?". Proc Nutr Soc. 65 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1079/PNS2005471. PMID 16441938. 
  27. ^ Milton K (2003). "Micronutrient intakes of non-human primates: are humans different?" (PDF). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (1): 47–59. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00084-9. PMID 14527629. http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/kmilton_micronutrient.pdf. 
  28. ^ Abuissa H, O’Keefe JH, Cordain, L (2005). "Realigning our 21st century diet and lifestyle with our hunter-gatherer genetic identity" (PDF). Directions Psych 25: SR1–SR10. http://www.thepaleodiet.com/articles/Dir%20Psych%202005.pdf. 
  29. ^ Eaton, S. Boyd; Cordain, Loren; & Sebastian, Anthony (2007). "The Ancestral Biomedical Environment". In Aird, William C.. Endothelial Biomedicine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–34. ISBN 0521853761. http://www.thepaleodiet.com/articles/Ancestral%20Biomedical%20Environment%20Final.pdf. 
  30. ^ Eaton SB, Eaton SB (2003 Sep). "An evolutionary perspective on human physical activity: implications for health". Comp Biochem Physiol a Mol Integr Physiol. 136 (1): 153–9. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00208-3. PMID 14527637. 
  31. ^ Cordain, L., Gotshall, R.W. and Eaton, S.B. (1998 Jul). "Physical activity, energy expenditure and fitness: an evolutionary perspective" (PDF). Int J Sports Med 19 (5): 328–35. doi:10.1055/s-2007-971926. PMID 9721056. http://www.thepaleodiet.com/articles/Int%20J%20Sport%20Article.pdf. 
  32. ^ Cordain, L., Gotshall, R.W., Eaton, S.B. (1997). "Evolutionary aspects of exercise" (PDF). World Rev Nutr Diet. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics (Vol. 81 + 82) 81: 49–60. doi:10.1159/000059601. ISBN 3-8055-6452-X. PMID 9287503. http://www.thepaleodiet.com/articles/Exercise%20&%20Evolution.pdf. 
  33. ^ Charansonney OL, Després JP. (2010). Disease prevention--should we target obesity or sedentary lifestyle? Nat Rev Cardiol. 7(8):468-72. doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2010.68 PMID 20498671
  34. ^ Kuzawa CW (1998). "Adipose tissue in human infancy and childhood: an evolutionary perspective". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.. Suppl 27: 177–209. PMID 9881526. 
  35. ^ a b Straub RH, Besedovsky HO (December 2003). "Integrated evolutionary, immunological, and neuroendocrine framework for the pathogenesis of chronic disabling inflammatory diseases". FASEB J. 17 (15): 2176–83. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0433hyp. PMID 14656978. 
  36. ^ a b Straub, R. H., del Rey, A., Besedovsky, H. O. (2007) "Emerging concepts for the pathogenesis of chronic disabling inflammatory diseases: neuroendocrine-immune interactions and evolutionary biology" In: Ader, R. (2007) "Psychoneuroimmunology", Volume 1, Academic Press, San Diego, pp.217-232
  37. ^ a b Straub RH, Besedovsky HO, Del Rey A (2007). "[Why are there analogous disease mechanisms in chronic inflammatory diseases?]" (in German). Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 119 (15–16): 444–54. doi:10.1007/s00508-007-0834-z. PMID 17721763. 
  38. ^ Wick G, Berger P, Jansen-Dürr P, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (2003). "A Darwinian-evolutionary concept of age-related diseases". Exp. Gerontol. 38 (1–2): 13–25. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(02)00161-4. PMID 12543257. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0531556502001614. 
  39. ^ Bogin , B. (1997) "Evolutionary hypotheses for human childhood". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 104: 63-89 abstract
  40. ^ Gluckman PD, Hanson MA (2006). "Evolution, development and timing of puberty". Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 17 (1): 7–12. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006. PMID 16311040. 
  41. ^ Kuhle BX (August 2007). "An evolutionary perspective on the origin and ontogeny of menopause". Maturitas 57 (4): 329–37. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2007.04.004. PMID 17544235. 
  42. ^ Profet M (September 1993). "Menstruation as a defense against pathogens transported by sperm". Q Rev Biol 68 (3): 335–86. doi:10.1086/418170. PMID 8210311. 
  43. ^ Strassmann BI (June 1996). "The evolution of endometrial cycles and menstruation". Q Rev Biol 71 (2): 181–220. doi:10.1086/419369. PMID 8693059. 
  44. ^ Finn CA. (1998) Menstruation: a nonadaptive consequence of uterine evolution. Q Rev Biol. 73:163-73. PubMed
  45. ^ Flaxman SM, Sherman PW (June 2000). "Morning sickness: a mechanism for protecting mother and embryo". Q Rev Biol 75 (2): 113–48. doi:10.1086/393377. PMID 10858967. 
  46. ^ Flaxman SM, Sherman PW (July 2008). "Morning sickness: adaptive cause or nonadaptive consequence of embryo viability?". Am. Nat. 172 (1): 54–62. doi:10.1086/588081. PMID 18500939. 
  47. ^ Wick G, Perschinka H, Millonig G (December 2001). "Atherosclerosis as an autoimmune disease: an update". Trends Immunol. 22 (12): 665–9. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(01)02089-0. PMID 11738996. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1471-4906(01)02089-0. 
  48. ^ Rotter JI, Diamond JM (1987). "What maintains the frequencies of human genetic diseases?". Nature 329 (6137): 289–90. doi:10.1038/329289a0. PMID 3114647. 
  49. ^ Kaifu Y, Kasai K, Townsend GC, Richards LC. (2003) Tooth wear and the "design" of the human dentition: a perspective from evolutionary medicine. Am J Phys Anthropol. Suppl 37:47-61.PubMed
  50. ^ NEEL JV (December 1962). "Diabetes mellitus: a "thrifty" genotype rendered detrimental by "progress"?". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 14: 353–62. PMC 1932342. PMID 13937884. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1932342. 
  51. ^ Neel JV, Weder AB, Julius S (1998). "Type II diabetes, essential hypertension, and obesity as "syndromes of impaired genetic homeostasis": the "thrifty genotype" hypothesis enters the 21st century". Perspect. Biol. Med. 42 (1): 44–74. PMID 9894356. 
  52. ^ Williams, George; Nesse, Randolph M. (1996). "Evolution and healing". Why we get sick: the new science of Darwinian medicine. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 37–8. ISBN 0-679-74674-9. 
  53. ^ Wick G, Jansen-Dürr P, Berger P, Blasko I, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (February 2000). "Diseases of aging". Vaccine 18 (16): 1567–83. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(99)00489-2. PMID 10689131. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0264-410X(99)00489-2. 
  54. ^ Kluger MJ, Ringler DH, Anver MR (April 1975). "Fever and survival". Science 188 (4184): 166–8. doi:10.1126/science.1114347. PMID 1114347. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1114347. 
  55. ^ Kluger MJ, Rothenburg BA (January 1979). "Fever and reduced iron: their interaction as a host defense response to bacterial infection". Science 203 (4378): 374–6. doi:10.1126/science.760197. PMID 760197. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=760197. 
  56. ^ Ames BN, Cathcart R, Schwiers E, Hochstein P (November 1981). "Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78 (11): 6858–62. doi:10.1073/pnas.78.11.6858. PMC 349151. PMID 6947260. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=349151. 
  57. ^ Naugler C (2008). "Hemochromatosis: a Neolithic adaptation to cereal grain diets". Med. Hypotheses 70 (3): 691–2. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2007.06.020. PMID 17689879. 
  58. ^ Moalem S, Percy ME, Kruck TP, Gelbart RR (September 2002). "Epidemic pathogenic selection: an explanation for hereditary hemochromatosis?". Med. Hypotheses 59 (3): 325–9. doi:10.1016/S0306-9877(02)00179-2. PMID 12208162. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306987702001792. 
  59. ^ Wander K, Shell-Duncan B, McDade TW (October 2008). "Evaluation of iron deficiency as a nutritional adaptation to infectious disease: An evolutionary medicine perspective". Am. J. Hum. Biol. 21 (2): 172–9. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20839. PMID 18949769. 
  60. ^ Eaton SB, Eaton SB, Konner MJ (April 1997). "Paleolithic nutrition revisited: a twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications". Eur J Clin Nutr 51 (4): 207–16. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600389. PMID 9104571. 
  61. ^ Eaton SB, Konner M (January 1985). "Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications". N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (5): 283–9. doi:10.1056/NEJM198501313120505. PMID 2981409. 
  62. ^ Woolf LI, McBean MS, Woolf FM, Cahalane SF (May 1975). "Phenylketonuria as a balanced polymorphism: the nature of the heterozygote advantage". Ann. Hum. Genet. 38 (4): 461–9. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1975.tb00635.x. PMID 1190737. 
  63. ^ Karasik, D. (Nov 2008). "Osteoporosis: an evolutionary perspective". Human genetics 124 (4): 349–356. doi:10.1007/s00439-008-0559-8. ISSN 0340-6717. PMID 18781328.  edit
  64. ^ Williams TN (August 2006). "Human red blood cell polymorphisms and malaria". Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 9 (4): 388–94. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2006.06.009. PMID 16815736. 
  65. ^ Ayi K, Turrini F, Piga A, Arese P (November 2004). "Enhanced phagocytosis of ring-parasitized mutant erythrocytes: a common mechanism that may explain protection against falciparum malaria in sickle trait and beta-thalassemia trait". Blood 104 (10): 3364–71. doi:10.1182/blood-2003-11-3820. PMID 15280204. 
  66. ^ Williams TN, Mwangi TW, Wambua S et al. (July 2005). "Sickle cell trait and the risk of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and other childhood diseases". J. Infect. Dis. 192 (1): 178–86. doi:10.1086/430744. PMID 15942909. 
  67. ^ Hart BL (1988). "Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals". Neurosci Biobehav Rev 12 (2): 123–37. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(88)80004-6. PMID 3050629. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149-7634(88)80004-6. 
  68. ^ Eaton SB, Pike MC, Short RV et al. (September 1994). "Women's reproductive cancers in evolutionary context". Q Rev Biol 69 (3): 353–67. doi:10.1086/418650. PMID 7972680. 
  69. ^ Nesse, R., & Williams, G. (1996) Why we get sick. NY: Vintage.
  70. ^ Gaulin, Steven J. C. and Donald H. McBurney. Evolutionary psychology. Prentice Hall. 2003. ISBN 9780131115293, Chapter 1, p 1-24.
  71. ^ Buss, D.M. (2011). Evolutionary Psychology.
  72. ^ Gaulin & McBurney (2004), Evolutionary Psychology
  73. ^ Workman & Reader (2004), Evolutionary Psychology
  74. ^ Nesse R (1997). "An evolutionary perspective on panic disorder and agoraphobia". In Baron-Cohen S. The maladapted mind: classic readings in evolutionary psychopathology. East Sussex: Psychology Press. pp. 73–84. ISBN 0-86377-460-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Rdz8voFlsZAC&pg=PA73&dq=evolutionary+agoraphobia#v=onepage&q=evolutionary%20agoraphobia&f=false. Retrieved 21 January 2011. 
  75. ^ Grinde B (June 2005). "An approach to the prevention of anxiety-related disorders based on evolutionary medicine". Prev Med 40 (6): 904–9. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.08.001. PMID 15850894. 
  76. ^ Nesse RM (January 2000). "Is depression an adaptation?". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.14. PMID 10632228. http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10632228. 
  77. ^ Nesse RM, Berridge KC (October 1997). "Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective". Science 278 (5335): 63–6. doi:10.1126/science.278.5335.63. PMID 9311928. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9311928. 
  78. ^ Crow TJ (July 1995). "A Darwinian approach to the origins of psychosis". Br J Psychiatry 167 (1): 12–25. doi:10.1192/bjp.167.1.12. PMID 7551604. 
  79. ^ Brüne M (March 2004). "Schizophrenia-an evolutionary enigma?". Neurosci Biobehav Rev 28 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.10.002. PMID 15036932. 
  80. ^ Nesse RM (September 2004). "Natural selection and the elusiveness of happiness". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 359 (1449): 1333–47. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1511. PMC 1693419. PMID 15347525. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1693419. 

Further reading

Books
  • Williams, George; Nesse, Randolph M. (1996). Why we get sick: the new science of Darwinian medicine. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74674-9. 
  • Stearns SC, Koella JK (2008). Evolution in health and disease (2nd ed.). Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920745-3. 
  • McKenna, James J.; Trevathan, Wenda; Smith, Euclid O. (2008). Evolutionary medicine and health: new perspectives (2nd ed.). Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530706-2. 
  • O'Higgins, Paul; Sarah Elton (2008). Medicine and Evolution: Current Applications, Future Prospects (Society for the Study of Human Biology Symposium Series (Sshb)). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 1-4200-5134-2. 
  • Ewald, P. W. (1996). Evolution of Infectious Disease. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511139-7. 
  • Moalem, S.; Prince, J. (2007). Survival of the Sickest. New York: HarperLuxe. ISBN 978-0-06-088965-4. 
Online articles

External links


Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Нужно решить контрольную?

Look at other dictionaries:

  • Evolutionary neuropathology — is an approach to understanding neurological and neurodegenerative diseases in terms of adaptation to environment, natural history and evolutionary medicine. Conceptually, it overlaps with a number of areas in theoretical biology, such as… …   Wikipedia

  • Evolutionary origin of religions — Neolithic Potnia Theron type goddess, seated on a throne flanked by two lionesses, from Çatalhöyük. The evolutionary origin of religions theorizes about the emergence of religious behavior during the course of human evolution. Contents …   Wikipedia

  • Medicine — This article is about the science and art of healing. For pharmaceutical drugs, see Medication. For other uses, see Medicine (disambiguation). Statue of Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine, holding the symbolic Rod of Asclepius with its coiled… …   Wikipedia

  • Evolutionary musicology — Not to be confused with Evolutionary music. Evolutionary musicology is a subfield of biomusicology that grounds the psychological mechanisms of music perception and production in evolutionary theory. It covers vocal communication in non human… …   Wikipedia

  • Evolutionary physiology — is the study of physiological evolution, which is to say, the manner in which the functional characteristics of individuals in a population of organisms have responded to selection across multiple generations during the history of the… …   Wikipedia

  • evolutionary cataract — developmental c …   Medical dictionary

  • Medicine in medieval Islam — In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine or Arabic medicine refers to medicine developed in the medieval Islamic civilization and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of the Islamic civilization. Despite these names, a significant number of… …   Wikipedia

  • Criticism of evolutionary psychology — From its beginning, evolutionary psychology (EP) has generated substantial controversy and criticism.[1] Criticisms include 1) disputes about the testability of evolutionary hypotheses, 2) alternatives to some of the cognitive assumptions (such… …   Wikipedia

  • Modern evolutionary synthesis — Evolutionary theory redirects here. For the sociological theory, see sociobiology. Part of a series on Evolutionary Biology …   Wikipedia

  • History of evolutionary thought — This article is about the history of evolutionary thought in biology. For the history of evolutionary thought in the social sciences, see Sociocultural evolution. For the history of religious discussions, see History of the creation evolution… …   Wikipedia

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
… Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”