Vocational education

A blacksmith is a traditional trade.

Vocational education or vocational education and training prepares trainees for very specific job roles. The student or trainee develops expertise in a particular group of techniques or technology.In 2006, the language vocational education was updated to career technical education.^[1]

Vocational education may be classified as teaching procedural knowledge. This can be contrasted with declarative knowledge, as used in education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge, characteristic of tertiary education. Vocational education can be at the secondary or post-secondary level and can interact with the apprenticeship system. Increasingly, vocational education can be recognised in terms of recognition of prior learning and partial academic credit towards tertiary education (e.g., at a university) as credit; however, it is rarely considered in its own form to fall under the traditional definition of higher education.

As the labor market becomes more specialized and economies demand higher levels of skill, governments and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of vocational education through publicly funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or traineeship initiatives for businesses. At the post-secondary level vocational education is typically provided by an institute of technology, or by a local community college.

Vocational education has diversified over the 20th century and now exists in industries such as retail, tourism, information technology, funeral services and cosmetics, as well as in the traditional crafts and cottage industries.

VET internationally

Australia

In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education and training (VET) system by registered training organisations. This system encompasses both public, TAFE, and private providers in a national training framework consisting of the Australian Quality Training Framework, Australian Qualifications Framework and Industry Training Packages which define the assessment standards for the different vocational qualifications.^[2]

Constitutionally, vocational education and training is the responsibility of states and territories. Accordingly, states and territories provide the majority of public funding and deliver the majority of training through the TAFE system. Until recently,^[3] each state and territory has also operated a state-based regulatory body. However, a central concept of the Australian system is "national recognition" whereby the assessments and awards of any one registered training organisation must be recognised by all others and the decisions of any state or territory training authority must be recognised by the other states and territories. This allows national portability of qualifications and units of competency.

Australia’s apprenticeship system includes both traditional apprenticeships in traditional trades and “traineeships” in other more service-oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract between the employer and the apprentice and provide a combination of school-based and workplace training. Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one to two years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress.^[4]

A crucial feature of the training package (which accounts for about 60% of publicly-funded training and almost all apprenticeship training) is that the content of the vocational qualifications is theoretically defined by industry and not by government or training providers. A Training Package is "owned" by one of 11 Industry Skills Councils which are responsible for developing and reviewing the qualifications.

The National Centre for Vocational Education Research or NCVER [1] is a not-for-profit company owned by the federal, state and territory ministers responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting, managing, analysing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational education and training (VET).

The boundaries between vocational education and tertiary education are becoming more blurred. A number of public vocational training providers such as TAFE NSW,^[5] NMIT, BHI and WAI are now offering specialised Bachelor degrees in specific areas not being adequately provided by Universities. Such Applied Courses include in the areas of Design, Equine studies, Winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture, Information Technology, Music, Illustration, Culinary Management and many more.^[6] This trend is expected to continue and expand allowing more students, particularly low-socioeconomic and remote students, to access higher education.^[7]

Commonwealth of Independent States

The largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the Soviet Union with the Professional`no-tehnicheskoye uchilische and, Tehnikum. But it became less effective with the transition of the economies of post-Soviet countries to a market economy.

Finland

In Finland, vocational education belongs to secondary education. After the nine-year comprehensive school, almost all students choose to go to either a lukio (high school), which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education, or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary education last three years, and give a formal qualification to enter university or ammattikorkeakoulus, i.e. Finnish polytechnics. In certain fields (e.g. the police school, air traffic control personnel training), the entrance requirements of vocational schools include completion of the lukio, thus causing the students to complete their secondary education twice.

The education in vocational school is free, and the students from low-income families are eligible for a state student grant. The curriculum is primarily vocational, and the academic part of the curriculum is adapted to the needs of a given course. The vocational schools are mostly maintained by municipalities.

After completing secondary education, one can enter higher vocational schools (ammattikorkeakoulu, or AMK) or universities.

It is also possible for a student to choose both lukio and vocational schooling. The education in such cases last usually from 3 to 4 years.

German language areas

Vocational education is an important part of the education systems in Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland (including the French and the Italian speaking parts of the country) and one element of the German model.

For example, in Germany a law (the Berufsausbildungsgesetz) was passed in 1969 which regulated and unified the vocational training system and codified the shared responsibility of the state, the unions, associations and chambers of trade and industry. The system is very popular in modern Germany: in 2001, two thirds of young people aged under 22 began an apprenticeship, and 78% of them completed it, meaning that approximately 51% of all young people under 22 have completed an apprenticeship. One in three companies offered apprenticeships in 2003; in 2004 the government signed a pledge with industrial unions that all companies except very small ones must take on apprentices.

The vocational education systems in the other German speaking countries are very similar to the German system and a vocational qualification from one country is generally also recognized in the other states within this area.

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, vocational education is usually for post-secondary 3, 5 and 7 students. The Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (IVE) provides training in nine different vocational fields, namely: Applied Science; Business Administration; Child Education and Community Services; Construction; Design; Printing, Textiles and Clothing; Hotel, Service and Tourism Studies; Information Technology; Electrical and Electronic Engineering; and Mechanical, Manufacturing and Industrial Engineering.

Hungary

Normally at the end of elementary school (at age 14) students are directed to one of three types of upper secondary education: one academic track (gymnasium) and two vocational tracks. Vocational secondary schools (szakközépiskola) provide four years of general education and also prepare students for the maturata. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. At that point many students enrol in a post-secondary VET programme often at the same institution, to obtain a vocational qualification, although they may also seek entry to tertiary education.

Vocational training schools (szakiskola) initially provide two years of general education, combined with some pre-vocational education and career orientation, they then choose an occupation, and then receive two or three years of vocational education and training focusing on that occupation – such as bricklayer. Students do not obtain the maturata but a vocational qualification at the end of a successfully completed programme. Demand for vocational training schools, both from the labour market and among students, has declined while it has increased for upper secondary schools delivering the maturata.^[8]

India

Vocational training in India is provided on a full time as well as part time basis. Full time programs are generally offered through I.T.I.s industrial training institutes. The nodal agency for grant the recognition to the I.T.I.s is NCVT which is under the Min. of labour, Govt. of India. Part time programs are offered through state technical education boards or universities who also offer full-time courses. Vocational training has been successful in India only in industrial training institutes and that too in engineering trades. There are many private institutes in India which offer courses in vocational training and finishing, but most of them have not been recognized by the Government. India is a pioneer in vocational training in Film & Television, and Information Technology.AAFT.Maharashtra State Government also offered vocational Diplomas in various Trades .

Japan

Japanese vocational schools are known as senmon gakkō (専門学校^?). They are part of Japan's higher education system. They are two year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are computer technology, fashion and English.

Korea

Vocational high schools offer programmes in five fields: agriculture, technology/engineering, commerce/business, maritime/fishery, and home economics. In principle, all students in the first year of high school (10th grade) follow a common national curriculum, In the second and third years (11th and 12th grades) students are offered courses relevant to their specialisation. In some programmes, students may participate in workplace training through co-operation between schools and local employers. The government is now piloting Vocational Meister Schools in which workplace training is an important part of the programme. Around half of all vocational high schools are private. Private and public schools operate according to similar rules; for example, they charge the same fees for high school education, with an exemption for poorer families.

The number of students in vocational high schools has decreased, from about half of students in 1995 down to about one-quarter today. To make vocational high schools more attractive, in April 2007 the Korean government changed the name of vocational high schools into professional high schools. With the change of the name the government also facilitated the entry of vocational high school graduates to colleges and universities.

Most vocational high school students continue into tertiary education; in 2007 43% transferred to junior colleges and 25% to university. At tertiary level, vocational education and training is provided in junior colleges (two- and three-year programmes) and at polytechnic colleges. Education at junior colleges and in two-year programmes in polytechnic colleges leads to an Industrial Associate degree. Polytechnics also provide one-year programmes for craftsmen and master craftsmen and short programmes for employed workers. The requirements for admission to these institutions are in principle the same as those in the rest of tertiary sector (on the basis of the College Scholastic Aptitude Test) but candidates with vocational qualifications are given priority in the admission process. Junior colleges have expanded rapidly in response to demand and in 2006 enrolled around 27% of all tertiary students.

95% of junior college students are in private institutions. Fees charged by private colleges are approximately twice those of public institutions. Polytechnic colleges are state-run institutions under the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour; government funding keeps student fees much lower than those charged by other tertiary institutions. Around 5% of students are enrolled in polytechnic colleges.^[9]

Mexico

In Mexico, both federal and state governments are responsible for the administration of vocational education. Federal schools are funded by the federal budget, in addition to their own funding sources. The state governments are responsible for the management of decentralised institutions, such as the State Centres for Scientific and Technological Studies (CECyTE) and Institutes of Training for Work (ICAT). These institutions are funded 50% from the federal budget and 50% from the state budget. The state governments also manage and fund “decentralised institutions of the federation”, such as CONALEP schools.

Compulsory education (including primary and lower secondary education) finishes at the age of 15 and about half of those aged 15-to-19 are enrolled full-time or part-time in education. All programmes at upper secondary level require the payment of a tuition fee.

The upper secondary vocational education system in Mexico includes over a dozen subsystems (administrative units within the Upper Secondary Education Undersecretariat of the Ministry of Public Education, responsible for vocational programmes) which differ from each other to varying degrees in content, administration, and target group. The large number of school types and corresponding administrative units within the Ministry of Public Education makes the institutional landscape of vocational education and training complex by international standards.

Vocational education and training provided under the Upper Secondary Education Under secretariat includes three main types of programme:

• “Training for work” (formación para el trabajo) courses at ISCED 2 level are short training programmes, taking typically 3 to 6 months to complete. The curriculum includes 50% theory and 50% practice. After completing the programme, students may enter the labour market. This programme does not provide direct access to tertiary education.

Those who complete lower secondary education may choose between two broad options of vocational upper secondary education at ISCED 3 level. Both programmes normally take three years to complete and offer a vocational degree as well as the baccalaureate, which is required for entry into tertiary education.

• The title “technical professional – baccalaureate” (profesional técnico - bachiller) is offered by various subsystems though one subsystem (CONALEP) includes two thirds of the students. The programme involves 35% general subjects and 65% vocational subjects. Students are required to complete 360 hours of practical training.

• The programme awarding the “technological baccalaureate” (bachillerato tecnológico) and the title “professional technician” (técnico professional) is offered by various subsystems (. It includes more general and less vocational education: 60% general subjects and 40% vocational subjects.^[10]

New Zealand

New Zealand is served by 39 Industry Training Organisations (ITOs) established under the Industry Training Act 1992 [2] to set standards, arrange training and provide leadership within an industry on future skill and training needs. By comparison with international arrangements, ITOs have several unusual features. Firstly, they use public funding, supplemented by funding provided by firms, to directly purchase training from accredited training providers rather than relying on those providers to anticipate the demand for training. Secondly, ITOs have encouraged more and more training to be delivered in the workplace instead of in simulated environments. [3] Industry Training, as organised by ITOs, has expanded from traditional apprenticeships to cover most occupations and industries and also to provide training for mature workers, for example, over 10% of trainees aged 50 or over. Moreover, although ITOs develop training for specific occupations and industries, most qualifications include a lot of generic training in literacy and numeracy. This challenges the prevailing idea of vocational education and the standard layperson view that it focuses on apprenticeships.

There are several sources of information on industry training in New Zealand, including the Ministry of Education^[11] and the Industry Training Federation.

Polytechnics, Private Training Establishments, Wananga and others also deliver vocational training, amongst other areas.

Norway

Nearly all those leaving lower secondary school enter upper secondary education, and around half follow one of 9 vocational programmes. These programmes typically involve two years in school followed by two years of apprenticeship in a company. The first year provides general education alongside introductory knowledge of the vocational area. During the second year, courses become more trade-specific.

Apprentices receive a wage negotiated in collective agreements ranging between 30% and 80% of the wage of a qualified worker; the percentage increasing over the apprenticeship period. Employers taking on apprentices receive a subsidy, equivalent to the cost of one year in school. After the two years vocational school programme some students opt for a third year in the ‘general’ programme as an alternative to an apprenticeship. Both apprenticeship and a third year of practical training in school lead to the same vocational qualifications. Upper secondary VET graduates may go directly to Vocational Technical Colleges, while those who wish to enter university need to take a supplementary year of education.

The social partners participate actively in the development of policy. The National Council for Vocational Education and Training advises the Minister on the development of the national vocational education and training system. The Advisory Councils for Vocational Education and Training are linked to the nine vocational education programmes provided in upper secondary education and advise on the content of VET programmes and on trends and future skill needs. The National Curriculum groups assist in deciding the contents of the vocational training within the specific occupations. The Local County Vocational Training Committees advise on the quality, provision of VET and career guidance.^[12]

Pakistan

In Pakistan NAVTEC is a regulatory body for technical education & vocational training in Pakistan.National Vocational & Technical Education Commission (NAVTEC) is mandated to facilitate, regulate, and provide policy direction for technical education and vocational training to meet national and international demand for skilled manpower. NAVTEC’s energies are also dedicated to developnational occupational skills standards, curricula and trade testing certification systems for all sectors in which technical education and vocational training is imparted.Realizing the role of skilled and technically educated manpower for development of overall national economy, the Government of Pakistan has established the National Vocational & Technical Education Commission (NAVTEC). The Commission will review, devise policy and evolve strategy/prepare training programmes relating to human resource development with a focus on technical and education and training (TVET). NAVTEC’s energies are also dedicated to develop national occupational skills standards, curricula and trade testing certification systems for all sectors in which technical education and vocational training is imparted.

The Commission is headed by a Chairman. All policy decisions are to be taken at NAVTEC Board which will be constituted very soon. This federal body will support and regulate all provincial bodies being created at the four provinces.

NAVTEC also runs free skills training programmes aimed at enhancing skills training of the unemployed educated youth. In addition, all course participants are offered a stipend of Rs. 1000 per month. The programme is initiated under the directive of the President of Pakistan and under Prime Minister's initiative for skills development.NAVTEC plans to enhance the training capacity of existing vocational and technical education training institutions from existing 320,000 to 1 million by 2010 annually.

Paraguay

In Paraguay, vocational education is known as Bachillerato Técnico and is part of the secondary education system. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. After nine year of Educación Escolar Básica (Primary School), the student can choose to go to either a Bachillerato Técnico (Vocational School) or a Bachillerato Científico (High School). Both forms of secondary education last three years, and are usually located in the same campus called Colegio.

After completing secondary education, one can enter to the universities. It is also possible for a student to choose both Técnico and Científico schooling.

Sweden

Nearly all of those leaving compulsory schooling immediately enter upper secondary schools, and most complete their upper secondary education in three years. Upper secondary education is divided into 13 vocationally-oriented and 4 academic national programmes. Slightly more than half of all students follow vocational programmes. All programmes offer broad general education and basic eligibility to continue studies at the post-secondary level. In addition, there are local programmes specially designed to meet local needs and ‘individual’ programmes.

A 1992 school reform extended vocational upper secondary programmes by one year, aligning them with three years of general upper secondary education, increasing their general education content, and making core subjects compulsory in all programmes. The core subjects (which occupy around one-third of total teaching time in both vocational and academic programmes) include English, artistic activities, physical education and health, mathematics, natural science, social studies, Swedish or Swedish as a second language, and religious studies. In addition to the core subjects, students pursue optional courses, subjects which are specific to each programme and a special project.

Vocational programmes include 15 weeks of workplace training (Arbetsplatsförlagd utbildning – APU) over the three-year period. Schools are responsible for arranging workplace training and verifying its quality. Most municipalities have advisory bodies: programme councils (programmråd) and vocational councils (yrkesråd) composed of employers’ and employees’ representatives from the locality. The councils advise schools on matters such as provision of workplace training courses, equipment purchase and training of supervisors in APU.^[13]

Switzerland

Nearly two thirds of those entering upper secondary education enter the vocational education and training system. At this level, vocational education and training is mainly provided through the ‘dual system’. Students spend some of their time in a vocational school; some of their time doing an apprenticeship at a host company; and for most programmes, students attend industry courses at an industry training centre to develop complementary practical skills relating to the occupation at hand. Common patterns are for students to spend one- two days per week at the vocational school and three-four days doing the apprenticeship at the host company; alternatively they alternate between some weeks attending classes at the vocational school and some weeks attending industry courses at an industry training centre. A different pattern is to begin the programme with most of the time devoted to in-school education and gradually diminishing the amount of in-school education in favour of more in-company training.

Switzerland draws a distinction between vocational education and training (VET) programmes at upper-secondary level, and professional education and training (PET) programmes, which take place at tertiary B level. In 2007, more than half of the population aged 25–64 had a VET or PET qualification as their highest level of education. In addition, universities of applied sciences (Fachhochschulen) offer vocational education at tertiary A level. Pathways enable people to shift from one part of the education system to another.^[14]

United Kingdom

The first "Trades School" in the UK was Stanley Technical Trades School (now Harris Academy South Norwood) which was designed, built and set up by William Stanley. The initial idea was thought of in 1901, and the school opened in 1907.^[15]

The system of vocational education in the UK initially developed independently of the state, with bodies such as the RSA and City & Guilds setting examinations for technical subjects. The Education Act 1944 made provision for a Tripartite System of grammar schools, secondary technical schools and secondary modern schools, but by 1975 only 0.5% of British senior pupils were in technical schools, compared to two-thirds of the equivalent German age group.^[16]

Successive recent British Governments have made attempts to promote and expand vocational education. In the 1970s, the Business And Technology Education Council was founded to confer further and higher education awards, particularly to further education colleges in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservative Government promoted the Youth Training Scheme, National Vocational Qualifications and General National Vocational Qualifications. However, youth training was marginalised as the proportion of young people staying on in full-time education increased.^[16]

In 1994, publicly-funded Modern Apprenticeships were introduced to provide "quality training on a work-based (educational) route".^[17] Numbers of apprentices have grown in recent years and the Department for Children, Schools and Families has stated its intention to make apprenticeships a "mainstream" part of England's education system.^[18]

United States

Main article: Vocational education in the United States

Up until the end of the twentieth century, vocational education focused on specific trades such as, for example, those of automobile mechanic or welder, and it was therefore associated with the activities of lower social classes. As a consequence, it carries some social stigma. Vocational education is related to the age-old apprenticeship system of learning.Historical educational polarizations about the different natures and hierarchical values of general education vs. vocational vs. liberal education in the United states are reminiscent of the Dewey / Snedden debates in the first quarter of the 20th century.^[19] These dialogues have been the hallmark for the separation of practical and academic philosophies in the history of vocational education. The exchanges highlight the traditional philosophical differences between Dewey’s notions of democratic career realization and the social efficiency perspectives of Snedden’s vocationalism. During the decades of their debates, American society was enamored of the possibilities and potentials scientific reasoning seemed to have.^[20] The rapid rate of industrialization was intoxicating and the possibilities seemed great for all parts of society to blossom with and through the use of scientific study, experimentation, and control. Having each person in American society being properly trained for their life’s occupational tasks and the appeal of this type of social order as a proper effect of education persisted in the majority of those participants and societal leaders who began the 20th century. This zeitgeist surrounded Snedden and Dewey and buoyed their optimism for education.

David Snedden was influenced by Ross Finney when Snedden was an undergraduate at Stanford University. Dr. Finney, a nationally recognized sociology professor at the University of Minnesota, generalized from his Army Alpha testing that the majority of Americans do not “rise -out-of-their-class.” Finney’s conclusions allowed him to construct his own sociological educational theory which was more hegemonious than emancipatory. Finney’s sociological theorizing help mold Snedden’s vision of school and its curriculum. After completing his doctoral work at Columbia University, David Snedden became the Commissioner of Education in Massachusetts. As commissioner, Snedden was aware of American industry’s preoccupation with Frederick Taylor’s vision for factory efficiency. In The Principles of Scientific Management, Taylor compiled ideas from his observations and thoughts during his employment as a machine shop employee at Midvale Steel.^[21] Fredrick Taylor advocated achieving production efficiency by close observation of and control of manufacturing processes in time and motion studies. Being concerned that schools should also be more efficient and effective, Taylorism provided techniques from industrial efficiencies that seemed transferable to the understanding of how education should be delivered for the majority of citizens who would eventually be employed in the American economy.

Interested in institutional efficiencies and determined to promote the new emerging conceptualization of practical education, Snedden appointed Charles Prosser as the Deputy Commissioner for Vocational Education in Massachusetts. Before this, Prosser had been the superintendent of the Children’s Aid Society from 1909–1910, taught sciences and literature in the New Albany High School and served as their superintendent from 1900-1908. As the Deputy Commissioner, Prosser began to formulate the operational aspects of Snedden’s philosophies and established those progressive mechanisms in the Massachusetts secondary system. Later, in 1915, Charles Prosser became the first director of Dunwoody College of Technology in Minneapolis, Minnesota.

John Dewey regarded his philosophical position on the primary objective of education as one that contrasted sharply with Snedden’s notion of education as preparation for a specific occupation or vocation. For Dewey, education’s primary function was the nurturing of a type of intelligence that would allow one to adapt to the many conditions of life. In fact, social progress was the result of society’s self management of learning rather than curriculum designed by an economy dictating the specifics of occupational tasks. Education was not to be guided by the economic demands of the day, but rather the economy was to be directed by those who worked and lived in the world it constructed. Dewey opposed the 1917 Smith Hughes Act and its brand of vocational education. He believed the Act was narrowly conceived and a passive promotion of polarized social classes which restricted one’s choice of career and life goals.

Altenbaugh characterized Dewey’s position on education as one that prioritized societal change as the result of one’s education, not Snedden’s notion of contented employment. Schools were to be the sources of intellectual critiques of modern society; education was to evaluate what was happening in the economic and social structures of the day, and model new ways of shaping society for the good the individual. With this type of motivation, education would guarantee that the negative aspects of industrialization would not be blindly perpetuated. Dewey did not perceive the industrial revolution as inherently neutral or a positive dynamic. For him, there were inconsistencies and integral gaps that needed the attention of those whom it employed and provided with sustenance.

Dewey’s progressive ideas in the educational philosophical debate entropied. His notion of learning as an activity that promoted autonomous rugged thinkers seemed in conflict with the other progressive view of harmonious relationships with progress, science and industrialism in an American economy - especially an economy that had the possibilities of dominating the world. Practical education, focused on work place realities, grew nationally, appealing to the industrialists, immigrants, legislators and many other segments of American society. The changes taking place in American society seemed linked to scientific method and industrialization, therefore justified their adoption. By default, practical education became what the culture perceived as worthwhile and proper for the majority of the learners. “The principal object … should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee’.”

See also

• Agricultural education
• Apprenticeship
• Community college
• Constructivism (learning theory)
• Employability
• Environmental education
• Family and consumer science
• Finishing school
• Further education
• Institute of technology
• Life skills
• Renewable energy
• Technical and Further Education (Australia)
• Training
• Retraining
• Vocational school
• Vocational university
• Widening participation (UK)

People

• G. Vernon Bennett, Pomona, California, school superintendent, statement on vocational education

References

1. ^ CTE:Education for a strong economy, National Association of State Directors, accessed on Nov. 1st, 2011.
2. ^ Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations Homepage
3. ^ http://www.deewr.gov.au/Ministers/Evans/Media/Releases/Pages/Article_101126_143904.aspx
4. ^ http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/27/11/41631383.pdf Learning for Jobs OECD review of Australian vocational education
5. ^ https://www.tafensw.edu.au/about/news/news-100827.htm
6. ^ TAFE gears up to offer degrees By Rebecca Scott, The Age July 24, 2002. Accessed August 3, 2008
7. ^ http://www.deewr.gov.au/HigherEducation/Review/Pages/FuturedirectionsforTertiaryEducation.aspx
8. ^ http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/27/41738329.pdf OECD review of vocational education and training in Hungary
9. ^ http://www.oecd.org/edu/learningforjobs review of Korean vocational education by OECD
10. ^ http://www.oecd.org/edu/learningforjobs Review of vocational education and training in Mexico
11. ^ NZ Government Education Counts search results
12. ^ http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/34/41506628.pdf OECD review of vocational education and training in Norway
13. ^ http://www.oecd.org/edu/learningforjobs OECD Learning for Jobs review of vocational education in Sweden
14. ^ http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/12/5/42578681.pdf Learning for Jobs OECD review of Switzerland, 2009
15. ^ Owen, W.B. (1912). Sir Sidney Lee. ed. Dictionary of National Biography – William Ford Robinson Stanley. Second Supplement. III (NEIL-YOUNG). London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 393–394. 
16. ^ ^{a b} Wolf, A. (2002) Does Education Matter? Myths about Education and Economic Growth London: Penguin.
17. ^ Youth Policies in the UK
18. ^ World Class Apprenticeships. The Government’s strategy for the future of Apprenticeships in England. DIUS/DCSF, 2008
19. ^ The Dewey / Snedden debates are well documented. Arthur G Wirt’s September 1977 “Issues Affecting Education and Work in the Eighties: Efficiency versus Industrial Democracy, A Historical Perspective” (79/1) has a short comprehensive analysis of the debate’s issues. Wirth uses a dualism based on Max Lerner’s notion of Americas as a Business Civilization and Paul Goodman’s description of America as a libertarian, pluralist and populist endeavor or experiment.
20. ^ Herbert M. Kliebard in The Struggle for the American Curriculum, in tracing Lawrence Cremin (1961), Edward Krug (1964), and Michael Katz (1968), proposes the Dewey / Snedden dualistic notion of progressive education as anachronistic and predicated on a meta narrative notion of American progressive education before the sixties as myth. Instead, Kliebard supports the notion of at least four distinct interest groups that have been improperly labeled as the monolithic progressive movement: humanists, developmentalists, social efficiency educators and social meliorists. All four groups had political agendas that contextually supported their educational values. However, they also strove for the preservation of their personal beliefs or acclimated to their status aspirations, irrespective of their intellectual concerns. In this complex struggle, curriculum is not the primary objective. More important than curriculum was the need for whose values and beliefs would dominate national discourses (231-252).
21. ^ Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper & Row Brothers, 1910).

Further reading

• Achilles, C. M.; Lintz, M.N.; and Wayson, W.W. "Observations on Building Public Confidence in Education." EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION AND POLICY ANALYSIS 11 no. 3 (1989): 275-284.
• Banach, Banach, and Cassidy. THE ABC COMPLETE BOOK OF SCHOOL MARKETING. Ray Township, MI: Author, 1996.
• Brodhead, C. W. "Image 2000: A Vision for Vocational Education." VOCATIONAL EDUCATION JOURNAL 66, no. 1 (January 1991): 22-25.
• Buzzell, C.H. "Let Our Image Reflect Our Pride." VOCATIONAL EDUCATION JOURNAL 62, no. 8 (November–December 1987): 10.
• Kincheloe, Joe L. Toil and Trouble: Good Work, Smart Workers, and the Integration of Academic and Vocational Education. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. (1995)
• Kincheloe, Joe L. How Do We Tell the Workers? The Socio-Economic Foundations of Work and Vocational Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. (1999)
• Lauglo, Jon; Maclean, Rupert (Eds.) "Vocationalisation of Secondary Education Revisited". Series: Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects , Vol. 1. Springer. (2005)
• O'Connor, P.J., and Trussell, S.T. "The Marketing of Vocational Education." VOCATIONAL EDUCATION JOURNAL 62, no. 8 (November–December 1987): 31-32.
• Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Learning for Jobs. Paris: OECD publishing. (2010).
• Ries, E. "To 'V' or Not to 'V': for Many the Word 'Vocational' Doesn't Work." TECHNIQUES 72, no. 8 (November–December 1997): 32-36.
• Ries, A., and Trout, J. THE 22 IMMUTABLE LAWS OF MARKETING. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1993.
• Sharpe, D. "Image Control: Teachers and Staff Have the Power to Shape Positive Thinking." VOCATIONAL EDUCATION JOURNAL 68, no. 1 (January 1993): 26-27.
• Shields, C.J. "How to Market Vocational Education." CURRICULUM REVIEW (November 1989): 3-5
• Silberman, H.F. "Improving the Status of High School Vocational Education." EDUCATIONAL HORIZONS 65, no. 1 (Fall 1986): 5-9.
• Tuttle, F.T. "Let's Get Serious about Image-Building." VOCATIONAL EDUCATION JOURNAL 62, no. 8 (November–December 1987): 11.
• "What Do People Think of Us?" TECHNIQUES 72, no. 6 (September 1997): 14-15.
• Asian Academy Of Film & Television
• Reeves, Diane Lindsey CAREER ACADEMY TOOLKIT. Raleigh, North Carolina: Bright Futures Press, 2006. [4]

External links

• Choosing a Career or Vocational School - U.S. Federal Trade Commission
• New Zealand Industry Training Federation website
• Vocational education at the Open Directory Project