Copley Medal

The Copley Medal awarded to Mendeleev in 1905.

John Theophilus Desaguliers, who won the medal three times, more than any other individual.

The Copley Medal is an award given by the Royal Society of London for "outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science, and alternates between the physical sciences and the biological sciences".^[1] Awarded every year, the medal is the oldest Royal Society medal still being awarded, having first been given in 1731 to Stephen Gray, who received it for "his new Electrical Experiments: – as an encouragement to him for the readiness he has always shown in obliging the Society with his discoveries and improvements in this part of Natural Knowledge".^[2] The medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years.^[3] The conditions for the medal have been changed several times; in 1736, it was suggested that "a medal or other honorary prize should be bestowed on the person whose experiment should be best approved", and this remained the rule until 1831, when the conditions were changed so that the medal would be awarded to the researcher that the Royal Society Council decided most deserved it.^[3] A second donation of £1666 13s. 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal.^[3] The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt and awarded with a £5000 prize.^[1]

Since its inception, the medal has been awarded to a number of notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize: 17 in Physics, 21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. These include Frederick Sanger, who was awarded the Copley Medal in 1977 "[i]n recognition of his distinguished work on the chemical structure of proteins and his studies on the sequences of nucleic acids"^[4] and is one of four people to have won multiple Nobel Prizes, having won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958 and 1980.^[5] John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, in 1734, 1736 and 1741. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin is as yet the only woman to have won the prize.

Recipients

Year	Name	Rationale	Notes
1731	Gray, StephenStephen Gray	"For his new Electrical Experiments: – as an encouragement to him for the readiness he has always shown in obliging the Society with his discoveries and improvements in this part of Natural Knowledge"	[6]
1732	Gray, StephenStephen Gray	"For the Experiments he made for the year 1732"	[6]
1733	No Award	—	—
1734	Desaguliers, John TheophilusJohn Theophilus Desaguliers	"In consideration of his several Experiments performed before the Society"	[7]
1735	No Award	—	—
1736	Desaguliers, John TheophilusJohn Theophilus Desaguliers	"For his experiments made during the year"	[7]
1737	Belchier, JohnJohn Belchier	"For his Experiment to show the property of a Diet of Madder Root in dyeing the Bones of living animals of a red colour"	[8]
1738	Valoue, JamesJames Valoue	"For his invention of an Engine for driving the Piles to make a Foundation for the Bridge to be erected at Westminster, the Model whereof had been shown to the Society"	—
1739	Hales, StephenStephen Hales	"For his Experiments towards the Discovery of Medicines for dissolving the Stone; and Preservatives for keeping Meat in long voyages at Sea"	[9]
1740	Stuart, AlexanderAlexander Stuart	"For his Lectures on Muscular Motion. As a further addition for his services to the Society in the care and pains he has taken therein"	[10]
1741	Desaguliers, John TheophilusJohn Theophilus Desaguliers	"For his Experiments towards the discovery of the properties of Electricity. As an addition to his allowance (as Curator) for the present year."	[7]
1742	Middleton, ChristopherChristopher Middleton	"For the communication of his Observations in the attempt of discovering a North-West passage to the East Indies through Hudsons Bay"	[11]
1743	Trembley, AbrahamAbraham Trembley	"For his Experiments on the Polypus"	—
1744	Baker, HenryHenry Baker	"For his curious Experiments relating to the Crystallization or Configuration of the minute particles of Saline Bodies dissolved in a menstruum"	[12]
1745	Watson, WilliamWilliam Watson	"On account of the surprising discoveries in the phenomena of Electricity, exhibited in his late Experiments"	[13]
1746	Robins, BenjaminBenjamin Robins	"On account of his curious Experiments for showing the resistance of the Air, and his rules for establishing his doctrine thereon for the motion of Projectiles"	[14]
1747	Knight, GowinGowin Knight	"On account of several very curious Experiments exhibited by him, both with Natural and Artificial Magnets"	[15]
1748	Bradley, JamesJames Bradley	"On account of his very curious and wonderful discoveries in the apparent motion of the Fixed Stars, and the causes of such apparent motion"	[16]
1749	Harrison, JohnJohn Harrison	"On account of those very curious Instruments, invented and made by him, for the exact mensuration of Time"	[17]
1750	Edwards, GeorgeGeorge Edwards	"On account of a very curious Book lately published by him, and intiyled, A Natural History of Birds, &c. – containing the Figures elegantly drawn, and illuminated in their proper colours, of 209 different Birds, and about 20 very rare Quadrupeds, Serpents, Fishes, and Insects."	[18]
1751	Canton, JohnJohn Canton	"On account of his communicating to the Society, and exhibiting before them, his curious method of making Artificial Magnets without the use of Natural ones"	[19]
1752	Pringle, JohnJohn Pringle	"On account of his very curious and useful Experiments and Observations on Septic and Anti-septic Substances, communicated to the Society"	[20]
1753	Franklin, BenjaminBenjamin Franklin	"On account of his curious Experiments and Observations on Electricity"	[21]
1754	Lewis, WilliamWilliam Lewis	"For the many Experiments made by him on Platina, which tend to the discovery of the sophistication of gold: – which he would have entirely completed, but was obliged to put a stop to his further enquiries for want of materials"	[22]
1755	Huxham, JohnJohn Huxham	"For his many useful Experiments on Antimony, of which an account had been read to the Society"	[23]
1756	No Award	—	—
1757	Cavendish, CharlesCharles Cavendish	"On account of his very curious and useful invention of making Thermometers, showing respectively the greatest degrees of heat and cold which have happened at any time during the absence of the observer"	[15]
1758	Dollond, JohnJohn Dollond	"On account of his curious Experiments and Discoveries concerning the different refrangibility of the Rays of Light, communicated to the Society"	[24]
1759	Smeaton, JohnJohn Smeaton	"On account of his curious Experiments concerning Water-wheels and Wind-mill Sails, communicated to the Society. For his experimental enquiry concerning the powers of water and wind in the moving of Mills"	[25]
1760	Wilson, BenjaminBenjamin Wilson	"For his many curious Experiments in Electricity, communicated to the Society within the year"	[26]
1761	No Award	—	—
1762	No Award	—	—
1763	No Award	—	—
1764	Canton, JohnJohn Canton	"For his very ingenious and elegant Experiments in the Air Pump and Condensing Engine, to prove the Compressibility of Water, and some other Fluids"	[19]
1765	No Award	—	—
1766	Brownrigg, WilliamWilliam Brownrigg, Edward Delaval and Henry Cavendish	"For an experimental enquiry into the Mineral Elastic Spirit, or Air, contained in Spa-Water; as well as into the Mephitic qualities of this Spirit. (Brownrigg)" "For his Experiments and Observations on the agreement between the specific gravities of the several Metals, and their colours when united to glass, as well as those of their other preparations. (Delaval)" "For his Paper communicated this present year, containing his Experiments relating to Fixed Air. (Cavendish)"	[27]
1767	Ellis, JohnJohn Ellis	"For his Papers of the year 1767, On the animal nature of the Genus of Zoophytes called Corallina, and the Actinia Sociata, or Clustered Animal Flower, lately found on the sea coasts of the new-ceded Islands"	[28]
1768	Woulfe, PeterPeter Woulfe	"For his Experiments on the Distillation of Acids, Volatile Alkalies, and other substances"	[29]
1769	Hewson, WilliamWilliam Hewson	"For his Two Papers, entitled, An Account of the Lymphatic System in Amphibious Animals, – and An Account of the Lymphatic System in Fish"	—
1770	Hamilton, WilliamWilliam Hamilton	"For his Paper, entitled, An Account of a Journey to Mount Etna"	[30]
1771	Raper, MatthewMatthew Raper	"For his paper entitled, An Enquiry into the value of ancient Greek and Roman Money"	—
1772	Priestley, JosephJoseph Priestley	"On account of the many curious and useful Experiments contained in his observations"
1773	Walsh, JohnJohn Walsh	"For his Paper on the Torpedo"	[31]
1774	No Award	—	—
1775	Maskelyne, NevilNevil Maskelyne	"In consideration of his curious and laborious Observations on the Attraction of Mountains, made in Scotland, – on Schehallien"	[32]
1776	Cook, JamesJames Cook	"For his Paper, giving an account of the method he had taken to preserve the health of the crew of H.M. Ship the Resolution, during her late voyage round the world. Whose communication to the Society was of such importance to the public"	[33]
1777	Mudge, JohnJohn Mudge	"On account of his valuable Paper containing directions for making the best Composition for the metals of Reflecting Telescopes; together with a description of the process for grinding, polishing, and giving the best speculum the true parabolic form"	—
1778	Hutton, CharlesCharles Hutton	"For his paper, entitled, The force of Fired Gunpowder, and the initial velocity of Cannon Balls, determined by Experiments"	[34]
1779	No Award	—	—
1780	Vince, SamuelSamuel Vince	"For his paper, entitled, An investigation of the Principles of Progressive and Rotatory Motion, printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	[35]
1781	Herschel, WilliamWilliam Herschel	"For the Communication of his Discovery of a new and singular Star; a discovery which does him particular honour, as, in all probability, this start has been for many years, perhaps ages, within the bounds of astronomic vision, and yet till now, eluded the most diligent researches of other observers"	[36]
1782	Kirwan, RichardRichard Kirwan	"As a reward for the merit of his labours in the science of Chemistry. For his chemical analyses of Salts"	[35]
1783	Goodricke, JohnJohn Goodricke and Thomas Hutchins	"For his discovery of the Period of the Variation of Light in the Star Algol. (Goodricke)" "For his Experiments to ascertain the point of Mercurial Congelation. (Hutchins)"	[35]
1784	Waring, EdwardEdward Waring	"For his Mathematical Communications to the Society. For his Paper On the Summation of Series, whose general term is a determinate function of z the distance from the first term of the series"	[37]
1785	Roy, WilliamWilliam Roy	"For his Measurement of a Base on Hounslow Heath"	[38]
1786	No Award	—	—
1787	Hunter, JohnJohn Hunter	"For his three Papers, – On the Ovaria, On the identity of the dog, wolf, and jackall species, and On the anatomy of Whales, printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1787"	[39]
1788	Blagden, CharlesCharles Blagden	"For his two Papers on Congelation, printed in the last (78th) volume of the Philosophical transactions"	[40]
1789	Morgan, WilliamWilliam Morgan	"For his two Papers on the values of Reversions and Survivorships, printed in the two last volumes of the Philosophical Transactions"	[41]
1790	No Award	—	—
1791	Rennell, JamesJames Rennell and Jean-André De Luc	"For his Paper on the Rate of Travelling as performed by Camels, printed in the last (81st) volume of the Philosophical Transactions. (Rennell)" "For his Improvements in Hygrometry. (De Luc)"	[42]
1792	Thompson, BenjaminBenjamin Thompson	"For his various Papers on the Properties and Communication of Heat"	[43]
1793	No Award	—	—
1794	Volta, AlessandroAlessandro Volta	"For his several Communications explanatory of certain Experiments published by Professor Galvani"	—
1795	Ramsden, JesseJesse Ramsden	"For his various inventions and improvements in the construction of the Instruments for the Trigonometrical measurements carried on by the late Major General Roy, and by Lieut. Col. Williams and his associates"	[44]
1796	Atwood, GeorgeGeorge Atwood	"For his Paper on the construction and analysis of geometrical propositions determining the positions assumed by homogeneal bodies which float freely, and at rest; and also determining the Stability of Ships and other floating bodies"	[45]
1797	No Award	—	—
1798	Shuckburgh-Evelyn, GeorgeGeorge Shuckburgh-Evelyn and Charles Hatchett	"For his various Communications printed in the Philosophical Transactions. (Evelyn)" "For his Chemical Communications printed in the Philosophical Transactions. (Hatchett)"	[46]
1799	Hellins, JohnJohn Hellins	"For his improved Solution of a problem in Physical Astronomy, &c. printed in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1798; and his other Mathematical Papers"	[47]
1800	Howard, EdwardEdward Howard	"For his Paper on a New Fulminating Mercury"	[48]
1801	Cooper, Astley PastonAstley Paston Cooper	"For his Papers – on the effects which take place from the destruction of the Membrana Tympani of the Ear; with an account of an operation for the removal of a particular species of Deafness"	[49]
1802	Wollaston, William HydeWilliam Hyde Wollaston	"For his various Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	[50]
1803	Chenevix, RichardRichard Chenevix	"For his various Chemical Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	[51]
1804	Tennant, SmithsonSmithson Tennant	"For his various Chemical Discoveries communicated to the Society, and printed in several volumes of the Philosophical Transactions"	[52]
1805	Davy, HumphryHumphry Davy	"For his various Communications published in the Philosophical Transactions"	[53]
1806	Knight, Thomas AndrewThomas Andrew Knight	"For his various Papers on Vegetation, printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	[54]
1807	Home, EverardEverard Home	"For his various Papers on Anatomy and Physiology, printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	—
1808	Henry, WilliamWilliam Henry	"For his various papers communicated to the society, and printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	—
1809	Troughton, EdwardEdward Troughton	"For the Account of his Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments, printed in the last volume of the Philosophical Transactions"	[55]
1810	No Award	—	—
1811	Brodie, Benjamin CollinsBenjamin Collins Brodie	"For his Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions. On the influence of the Brain on the action of the Heart, and the generation of Animal Heat; and on the different modes in which death is brought on by certain Vegetable Poisons"	[56]
1812	No Award	—	—
1813	Brande, William ThomasWilliam Thomas Brande	"For his Communications concerning the Alcohol contained in Fermented Liquors and other Papers, printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	—
1814	Ivory, JamesJames Ivory	"For his various Mathematical Contributions printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	[57]
1815	Brewster, DavidDavid Brewster	"For his Paper on the Polarization of Light by Reflection from Transparent Bodies"	[58]
1816	No Award	—	—
1817	Kater, HenryHenry Kater	"For his Experiments on the Pendulum"	[59]
1818	Seppings, RobertRobert Seppings	"For his Papers on the construction of Ships of War, printed in the Philosophical Transactions"	—
1819	No Award	—	—
1820	Orsted, Hans Christian !Hans Christian Ørsted	"For his Electro-magnetic Discoveries"	[60]
1821	Sabine, EdwardEdward Sabine and John Herschel	"For his various Communications to the Royal Society relating to his researches made in the late Expedition to the Arctic Regions. (Sabine)" "For his Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions. (Herschel)"	[61]
1822	Buckland, WilliamWilliam Buckland	"For his Paper on the Fossil Teeth and Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale"	[62]
1823	Pond, JohnJohn Pond	"For his various Communications to the Royal Society"	—
1824	Brinkley, JohnJohn Brinkley	"For his various Communications to the Royal Society"	[63]
1825	Arago, FrançoisFrançois Arago and Peter Barlow	"For the Discovery of the Magnetic Properties of substances not containing Iron. For the Discovery of the power of various bodies, principally metallic, to receive magnetic impressions, in the same, though in a more evanescent manner than malleable Iron, and in an infinitely less intense degree. (Arago)" "For his various Communications on the subject of Magnetism. (Barlow)"	[64]
1826	South, JamesJames South	"For his observations of Double Stars, and his Paper on the Discordances between the Suns observed and computed Right Ascensions, published in the Transactions of the Society. For his Paper of Observations of the Apparent Distances and Positions of Four Hundred and Fifty-eight Double and Triple Stars, published in the present volume (1826, Part 1.) of the Transactions"	[65]
1827	Prout, WilliamWilliam Prout and Henry Foster	"For his Paper entitled, On the ultimate Composition of simple alimentary substances, with some preliminary remarks on the analysis of organized bodies in general. (Prout)" "For his magnetic and other observations made during the Arctic expedition to Port Bowen. (Foster)"	[66]
1828	No Award	—	—
1829	No Award	—	—
1830	No Award	—	—
1831	Airy, George BiddellGeorge Biddell Airy	"For his Papers, On the principle of the construction of the Achromatic Eye-pieces of Telescopes, – On the Spherical Aberration of the Eye-pieces of Telescopes, and for other Papers on Optical Subjects in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society"	[67]
1832	Faraday, MichaelMichael Faraday and Simeon Poisson	"For his discovery of Magneto-Electricity as detailed in his Experimental Researches in Electricity, published in the Philosophical Transactions for the present year. (Faraday)" "For his work entitled, Nouvelle Theorie de lAction Capillaire. (Poisson)"	[68]
1833	No Award	—	—
1834	Plana, GiovanniGiovanni Plana	"For his work entitled, Theorie du Mouvement de la Lune"	[69]
1835	Harris, William SnowWilliam Snow Harris	"For his experimental investigations of the force of electricity of high intensity contained in the Philosophical Transactions of 1834"	[53]
1836	Berzelius, Jöns JakobJöns Jakob Berzelius and Francis Kiernan	"For his systematic application of the doctrine of definite proportions to the analysis of mineral bodies, as contained in his Nouveau Systeme de Mineralogie, and in other of his works. (Berzelius)" "For his discoveries relating to the structure of the liver, as detailed in his paper communicated to the Royal Society, and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1833. (Kiernan)"	—
1837	Becquerel, Antoine CésarAntoine César Becquerel and John Frederic Daniell	"For his various memoirs on the subject of electricity, published in the Memoires deacademie Royale des Sciences de lInstitut de France, and particularly for those on the production of crystals of metallic sulphurets and of sulphur, by the long-continued action of electricity of very low tension, and published in the tenth volume of those Memoires. (Becquerel)" "For his two papers on voltaic combinations published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1836. (Daniell)"	[70]
1838	Gauss, Carl FriedrichCarl Friedrich Gauss and Michael Faraday	"For his inventions and mathematical researches in magnetism. (Gauss)" "For his researches in specific electrical induction. (Faraday)"	[71]
1839	Brown, RobertRobert Brown	"For his discoveries during a series of years, on the subject of vegetable impregnation"	[72]
1840	Liebig, JustusJustus Liebig and Jacques Charles François Sturm	"For his discoveries in organic chemistry, and particularly for his development of the composition and theory of organic radicals. (Liebig)" "For his "Memoire sur la Resolution des Equations Numeriques," published in the Memoires des Savans Etrangers for 1835. (Sturm)"	[73][74]
1841	Ohm, GeorgGeorg Ohm	"For his researches into the laws of electric currents contained in various memoirs published in Schweiggers Journal, Poggendorffs Annalen and in a separate work entitled Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet"	[75]
1842	MacCullagh, JamesJames MacCullagh	"For his researches connected with the wave theory of light, contained in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy"	[76]
1843	Dumas, Jean BaptisteJean Baptiste Dumas	"For his late valuable researches in organic chemistry, particularly those contained in a series of memoirs on chemical types and the doctrine of substitution, and also for his elaborate investigations of the atomic weights of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other elements"	—
1844	Matteucci, CarloCarlo Matteucci	"For his various researches in animal electricity"	[77]
1845	Schwann, TheodorTheodor Schwann	"For his physiological researches on the development of animal & vegetable textures, published in his work entitled Mikroskopische Untersuchungen uber die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur u. dem Wachsthun der Thiese u. Bflanzen"	—
1846	Verrier, Urbain LeUrbain Le Verrier	"For his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus by which he proved the existence and predicted the place of the new Planet; the Council considering such prediction confirmed as it was by the immediate discovery of the Planet to be one of the proudest triumphs of modern analysis applied to the Newtonian Theory of Gravitation"	[78]
1847	Herschel, JohnJohn Herschel	"For his work entitled Results of Astronomical Observations made during the years 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837 and 1838, at the Cape of Good Hope; being a completion of a telescopic survey of the whole surface of the visible heavens, commenced in 1825"	[61]
1848	Adams, John CouchJohn Couch Adams	"For his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus, and for his application of the inverse problem of perturbations thereto"	[79]
1849	Murchison, RoderickRoderick Murchison	"For the eminent services he has rendered to geological science during many years of active observation in several parts of Europe; and especially for the establishment of that classification of the older Palaeozoic deposits designated the Silurian System, as set forth in the two works entitled The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches in England, and The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains"	—
1850	Hansen, Peter AndreasPeter Andreas Hansen	"For his researches in physical astronomy"	[53]
1851	Owen, RichardRichard Owen	"On account of his important discoveries in comparative anatomy & palaeontology, contained in the Philosophical Transactions and numerous other works"	[80]
1852	Humboldt, Alexander vonAlexander von Humboldt	"For his eminent services in terrestrial physics, during a series of years"	[81]
1853	Dove, Heinrich WilhelmHeinrich Wilhelm Dove	"For his work on the distribution of heat over the surface of the Earth"	—
1854	Müller, Johannes PeterJohannes Peter Müller	"For his important contributions to different branches of physiology and comparative anatomy, and particularly for his researches on the embryology of the Echinodermata, contained in a series of memoirs published in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin"	[82]
1855	Foucault, LéonLéon Foucault	"For his various researches in experimental physics"	[53]
1856	Milne-Edwards, HenriHenri Milne-Edwards	"For his researches in comparative anatomy and zoology"	—
1857	Chevreul, Michel EugèneMichel Eugène Chevreul	"For his researches in organic chemistry, particularly on the composition of the fats, and for his researches on the contrast of coulours"	[53]
1858	Lyell, CharlesCharles Lyell	"For his various researches and writings by which he has contributed to the advance of geology"	[53]
1859	Weber, WilhelmWilhelm Weber	"For the investigations contained in his Maasbestimmungen and other researches in electricity, magnetism, acoustics"	[83]
1860	Bunsen, RobertRobert Bunsen	"For his researches on cacodyls, gaseous analysis, the Voltaire phenomena of Iceland; and other researches"	[53]
1861	Agassiz, LouisLouis Agassiz	"For his eminent researches in palaeontology and other branches of science, and particularly for his great works the Poissons Fossiles, and his Poissons du Vieux Gres Rouge dEcosse"	[53]
1862	Graham, ThomasThomas Graham	"For three memoirs of the diffusion of liquids, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1850 and 1851; for a memoir on osmotic force in the Philosophical Transactions for 1854; and particularly for a paper on liquid diffusion applied to analysis, including a distinction of compounds into colloids & crystalloids published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1861"	[84]
1863	Sedgwick, AdamAdam Sedgwick	"For his original observations and discoveries in the geology of the Palaeozoic Series of rocks, and more especially for his determination of the characters of the Devonian System, by observations of the order of superposition of the Killas rocks & their fossils in Devonshire"	[85]
1864	Darwin, CharlesCharles Darwin	"For his important researches in geology, zoology, and botanical physiology"	[53]
1865	Chasles, MichelMichel Chasles	"For his historical and original researches in pure geometry"	[86]
1866	Plücker, JuliusJulius Plücker	"For his researches in analytical geometry, magnetism, & spectral analysis"	[87]
1867	Baer, Karl Ernst vonKarl Ernst von Baer	"For his discoveries in embryology and comparative anatomy, and for his contributions to the philosophy of zoology"	[53]
1868	Wheatstone, CharlesCharles Wheatstone	"For his researches in acoustics, optics, electricity and magnetism"	[53]
1869	Regnault, Henri VictorHenri Victor Regnault	"For the second volume of his Relation des Experiences pour determiner les lois et les donnees physiques necessaries au calcul des machines a feu, including his elaborate investigations on the specific heat of gases and vapours, and various papers on the elastic force of vapours"	[53]
1870	Joule, James PrescottJames Prescott Joule	"For his experimental researches on the dynamical theory of heat"	[53]
1871	Mayer, Julius Robert vonJulius Robert von Mayer	"For his researches on the mechanics of heat; including essays on: – 1. The force of inorganic nature. 2. Organic motion in connection with nutrition. 3. Fever. 4. Celestial dynamics. 5. The mechanical equivalent of heat"	[53]
1872	Woehler, FriedrichFriedrich Woehler	"For his numerous contributions to the science of chemistry, and more especially for his researches on the products of the decomposition of cyanogens by ammonia; on the derivatives of uric acid; on the benzoyl series; on boron, silicon, & their compounds; and on meteoric stones"	[53]
1873	Helmholtz, HermannHermann Helmholtz	"For his researches in physics and physiology"	[88]
1874	Pasteur, LouisLouis Pasteur	"For his researches on fermentation and on pelerine"	[53]
1875	Hofmann, August WilhelmAugust Wilhelm Hofmann	"For his numerous contributions to the science of chemistry, and especially for his researches on the derivatives of ammonia"	[89]
1876	Bernard, ClaudeClaude Bernard	"For his numerous contributions to the science of physiology"	[53]
1877	Dana, James DwightJames Dwight Dana	"For his biological, geological, and mineralogical investigations, carried on through half a century, and for the valuable works in which his conclusions and discoveries have been published"	[53]
1878	Boussingault, Jean BaptisteJean Baptiste Boussingault	"For his long-continued and important researches and discoveries in agricultural chemistry"	[90]
1879	Clausius, RudolfRudolf Clausius	"For his well-known researches upon heat"	[91]
1880	Sylvester, James JosephJames Joseph Sylvester	"For his long continued investigations & discoveries in mathematics"	[92]
1881	Wurtz, Charles-AdolpheCharles-Adolphe Wurtz	"For his discovery of the organic ammonias, the glycols, and other investigations which have exercised considerable influence on the progress of chemistry"	—
1882	Cayley, ArthurArthur Cayley	"For his numerous profound and comprehensive researches in pure mathematics"	[93]
1883	Thomson, WilliamWilliam Thomson	"For (1) his discovery of the law of the universal dissipation of energy; (2) his researches and eminent services in physics, both experimental & mathematical, especially in the theory of electricity and thermodynamics"	[94]
1884	Ludwig, CarlCarl Ludwig	"For his investigations in physiology, and the great services which he has rendered to physiological science"	—
1885	Stradonitz, Friedrich August Kekulé vonFriedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz	"For his researches in organic chemistry"	[53]
1886	Neumann, Franz ErnstFranz Ernst Neumann	"For his researches in theoretical optics and electro-dynamics"	[95]
1887	Hooker, Joseph DaltonJoseph Dalton Hooker	"For his services to botanical science as an investigator, author, and traveller"	[53]
1888	Huxley, Thomas HenryThomas Henry Huxley	"For his investigations on the morphology and histology of vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and for his services to biological science in general during many past years"	[53]
1889	Salmon, GeorgeGeorge Salmon	"For his various papers on subjects of pure mathematics, and for the valuable mathematical treatises of which he is the author"	[96]
1890	Newcomb, SimonSimon Newcomb	"For his contributions to the progress of gravitational astronomy"	[97]
1891	Cannizzaro, StanislaoStanislao Cannizzaro	"For his contributions to chemical philosophy especially for his application of Avogadros theory"	[53]
1892	Virchow, RudolfRudolf Virchow	"For his investigations in pathology, pathological anatomy, and prehistoric archaeology"	[53]
1893	Stokes, George GabrielGeorge Gabriel Stokes	"For his researches and discoveries in physical science"	[98]
1894	Frankland, EdwardEdward Frankland	"For his eminent services to theoretical & applied chemistry"	[99]
1895	Weierstrass, KarlKarl Weierstrass	"For his investigations in pure mathematics"	[100]
1896	Gegenbaur, KarlKarl Gegenbaur	"For his life-long researches in comparative anatomy in all branches of the animal kingdom. etc., etc"	—
1897	Kölliker, Albert vonAlbert von Kölliker	"In recognition of his important work in embryology, comparative anatomy, and physiology, and especially for his eminence as a histologist"	—
1898	Huggins, WilliamWilliam Huggins	"For his researches in spectrum analysis applied to the heavenly bodies"	[53]
1899	Rayleigh, LordLord Rayleigh	"In recognition of his contributions to physical science"	[101]
1900	Berthelot, MarcellinMarcellin Berthelot	"For his brilliant services to chemical science"	[53]
1901	Gibbs, WillardWillard Gibbs	"For his contributions to mathematical physics"	[102]
1902	Lister, JosephJoseph Lister	"In recognition of the value of his physiological and pathological researches in regard to their influence on the modern practice of surgery"	[103]
1903	Suess, EduardEduard Suess	"For his eminent geological services, & especially for the original researches & conclusions published in his great work 'Das Antlitz der Erde'"	[103]
1904	Crookes, WilliamWilliam Crookes	"For his long-continued researches in spectroscopic chemistry, on electrical & mechanical phenomena in highly-rarefied gases, on radio-active phenomena, and other subjects"	[103]
1905	Mendeleev, DmitriDmitri Mendeleev	"For his contributions to chemical and physical science"	[103]
1906	Metchnikoff, EliasElias Metchnikoff	"On the ground of the importance of his work in zoology and in pathology"	[103]
1907	Michelson, Albert AbrahamAlbert Abraham Michelson	"On the ground of his investigations in optics"	[103]
1908	Wallace, Alfred RusselAlfred Russel Wallace	"On the ground of the great value of his numerous contributions to natural history, and of the part he took in working out the theory of the origin of species by natural selection"	[103]
1909	Hill, George WilliamGeorge William Hill	"On the ground of his researches in mathematical astronomy"	[103]
1910	Galton, FrancisFrancis Galton	"On the ground of his researches in heredity"	[103]
1911	Darwin, George HowardGeorge Howard Darwin	"On the ground of his researches on tidal theory, the figures of the planets, and allied subjects"	[103]
1912	Klein, FelixFelix Klein	"On the ground of his researches in mathematics"	[104]
1913	Lankester, RayRay Lankester	"On the ground of the high scientific value of the researches in zoology carried out by him"	[105]
1914	Thomson, Joseph JohnJoseph John Thomson	"On the ground of his discoveries in physical science"	[103]
1915	Pavlov, IvanIvan Pavlov	"On the ground of his investigations in the physiology of digestion and of the higher centres of the nervous system"	[103]
1916	Dewar, JamesJames Dewar	"For his important investigations in physical chemistry, more especially his researches on the liquefaction of gases"	[103]
1917	Roux, EmileEmile Roux	"On the ground of his eminence as a bacteriologist, and as a pioneer in serum therapy"	[106]
1918	Lorentz, HendrikHendrik Lorentz	"On the ground of his distinguished researches in mathematical physics"	[103]
1919	Bayliss, WilliamWilliam Bayliss	"On the ground of his researches in general physiology & biophysics"	[103]
1920	Brown, Horace TabbererHorace Tabberer Brown	"On the ground of his work on the chemistry of carbohydrates, &c"	[107]
1921	Larmor, JosephJoseph Larmor	"For his researches in mathematical physics"	[108]
1922	Rutherford, ErnestErnest Rutherford	"For his researches in radio activity & atomic structure"	[103]
1923	Lamb, HoraceHorace Lamb	"For his researches in mathematical physics"	[109]
1924	Sharpey-Schafer, Edward AlbertEdward Albert Sharpey-Schafer	"For the valuable work he has done in physiology and histology and the position he now occupies as a leader in these sciences"	—
1925	Einstein, AlbertAlbert Einstein	"For his theory of relativity and his contributions to the quantum theory"	[103]
1926	Hopkins, FrederickFrederick Hopkins	"For his distinguished and fruitful work in biochemistry"	[110]
1927	Sherrington, CharlesCharles Sherrington	"For his distinguished work on neurology"	[111]
1928	Parsons, Charles AlgernonCharles Algernon Parsons	"For his contributions to engineering science"	—
1929	Planck, MaxMax Planck	"For his contributions to theoretical physics and especially as the originator of the quantum theory"	[112]
1930	Bragg, William HenryWilliam Henry Bragg	"For his distinguished contributions to crystallography and radioactivity"	[113]
1931	Schuster, ArthurArthur Schuster	"For his distinguished researches in optics and terrestrial magnetism"	[114]
1932	Hale, George ElleryGeorge Ellery Hale	"For his distinguished work on the solar magnetic phenomena and for his eminence as a scientific engineer, especially in connexion with Mount Wilson Observatory"	[115]
1933	Smith, TheobaldTheobald Smith	"For his original research and observation on diseases of animals and man"	[116]
1934	Haldane, John ScottJohn Scott Haldane	"In recognition of his discoveries in human physiology and of their application to medicine, mining, diving and engineering"	[117]
1935	Wilson, Charles Thomson ReesCharles Thomson Rees Wilson	"For his work on the use of clouds in advancing our knowledge of atoms and their properties"	[118]
1936	Evans, ArthurArthur Evans	"In recognition of his pioneer work in Crete, particularly his contributions to the history and civilization of its Minoan age"	[119]
1937	Dale, HenryHenry Dale	"In recognition of his important contributions to physiology and pharmacology, particularly in relation to the nervous and neuro-muscular systems"	[120]
1938	Bohr, NielsNiels Bohr	"In recognition of his distinguished work in the development of the quantum theory of atomic structure"	[121]
1939	Morgan, Thomas HuntThomas Hunt Morgan	"For his establishment of the modern science of genetics which had revolutionized our understanding, not only of heredity, but of the mechanism and nature of evolution"	[122]
1940	Langevin, PaulPaul Langevin	"For his pioneer work on the electron theory of magnetism, his fundamental contributions to discharge of electricity in gases, and his important work in many branches of theoretical physics"	[123]
1941	Lewis, ThomasThomas Lewis	"For his clinical and experimental investigations upon the mammalian heart"	[124]
1942	Robinson, RobertRobert Robinson	"For his research work of outstanding originality and brilliance which has influenced the whole field of organic chemistry"	[125]
1943	Barcroft, JosephJoseph Barcroft	"For his distinguished work on respiration and the respiratory function of the blood"	[126]
1944	Taylor, Geoffrey IngramGeoffrey Ingram Taylor	"For his many contributions to aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and the structure of metals, which have had a profound influence on the advance of physical science and its applications"	[127]
1945	Avery, Oswald TheodoreOswald Theodore Avery	"For his success in introducing chemical methods in the study of immunity against infective diseases"	[128]
1946	Adrian, Edgar DouglasEdgar Douglas Adrian	"For his distinguished researches on the fundamental nature of nervous activity, and recently on the localization of certain nervous functions"	[129]
1947	Hardy, Godfrey HaroldGodfrey Harold Hardy	"For his distinguished part in the development of mathematical analysis in England during the last thirty years"	[130]
1948	Hill, Archibald VivianArchibald Vivian Hill	"For his distinguished researches on myothermal problems and on biophysical phenomena in nerve and other tissues"	[131]
1949	Hevesy, George Charles DeGeorge Charles De Hevesy	"For his distinguished work on the chemistry of radioactive elements and especially for his development of the radioactive tracer techniques in the investigation of biological processes"	[132]
1950	Chadwick, JamesJames Chadwick	"For his outstanding work in nuclear physics and in the development of atomic energy, especially for his discovery of the neutron"	[133]
1951	Keilin, DavidDavid Keilin	"For his fundamental researches in the fields of protozoology, entomology and the biochemistry of enzymes"	[134]
1952	Dirac, PaulPaul Dirac	"In recognition of his remarkable contributions to relativistic dynamics of a particle in quantum mechanics"	[135]
1953	Kluyver, AlbertAlbert Kluyver	"For his distinguished contributions of a fundamental character to the science of microbiology"	—
1954	Whittaker, EdmundEdmund Whittaker	"For his distinguished contributions to both pure and applied mathematics and to theoretical physics"	[136]
1955	Fisher, RonaldRonald Fisher	"In recognition of his numerous and distinguished contributions to developing the theory and application of statistics for making quantitative a vast field of biology"	[137]
1956	Blackett, PatrickPatrick Blackett	"In recognition of his outstanding studies of cosmic ray showers and heavy mesons and in the field of palaeomagnetism"	—
1957	Florey, HowardHoward Florey	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to experimental pathology and medicine"	[138]
1958	Littlewood, John EdensorJohn Edensor Littlewood	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to many branches of analysis, including Tauberian theory, the Riemann zeta function, and non-linear differential equations"	[139]
1959	Burnet, Frank MacfarlaneFrank Macfarlane Burnet	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to knowledge of viruses and of immunology"	[140]
1960	Jeffreys, HaroldHarold Jeffreys	"In recognition of his distinguished work in many branches of geophysics, and also in the theory of probability and astronomy"	[141]
1961	Krebs, Hans AdolfHans Adolf Krebs	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to biochemistry, in particular his work on the ornithine, tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycles"	[142] s
1962	Hinshelwood, Cyril NormanCyril Norman Hinshelwood	"In recognition of his distinguished researches in the field of chemical kinetics, including the study of biological reaction mechanisms, and of his outstanding contributions to natural philosophy"	[143]
1963	Fildes, PaulPaul Fildes	"In recognition of his pioneering contributions to bacteriology."	—
1964	Sydney Chapman, Sydney Chapman	"In recognition of his theoretical contributions to terrestrial and interplanetary magnetism, the ionosphere and the aurora borealis"	[144]
1965	Hodgkin, AlanAlan Hodgkin	"In recognition of his discovery of the mechanism of excitation and impulse conduction in nerve, and his outstanding leadership in the development of neurophysiology"	—
1966	Lawrence Bragg, WilliamWilliam Lawrence Bragg	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the development of methods of structural determination by X-ray diffraction"	[103]
1967	Katz, BernardBernard Katz	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to knowledge of the fundamental processes involved in transmission across the neuromuscular junction"	—
1968	Reichstein, TadeusTadeus Reichstein	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the chemistry of vitamin C and his authoritative studies of the cortico-steroids"	—
1969	Medawar, PeterPeter Medawar	"In recognition of his distinguished studies of tissue transplantation and immunological tolerance"	[103]
1970	Todd, AlexanderAlexander Todd	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to both the analytical and synthetic chemistry of natural products of diverse types"	[103]
1971	Pirie, NormanNorman Pirie	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to biochemistry and especially for his elucidation of the nature of plant viruses"	—
1972	Mott, NevillNevill Mott	"In recognition of his original contributions over a long period to atomic and solid state physics"	[103]
1973	Huxley, AndrewAndrew Huxley	"In recognition of his outstanding studies on the mechanisms of the nerve impulse and of activation of muscular contraction"	—
1974	Hodge, William V. D.William V. D. Hodge	"In recognition of his pioneering work in algebraic geometry, notably in his theory of harmonic integrals"	[145]
1975	Crick, FrancisFrancis Crick	"In recognition of his elucidation of the structure of DNA and his continuing contribution to molecular biology"	[103]
1976	Hodgkin, Dorothy CrowfootDorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin	"In recognition of her outstanding work on the structures of complex molecules, particularly Penicillin, vitamin B12 and insulin"	[103]
1977	Sanger, FrederickFrederick Sanger	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the chemical structure of proteins and his studies on the sequences of nucleic acids"	[103]
1978	Woodward, Robert BurnsRobert Burns Woodward	"In recognition of his masterly contributions to the synthesis of complex natural products and his discovery of the importance of orbital symmetry"	[103]
1979	Perutz, MaxMax Perutz	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to molecular biology through his own studies of the structure and biological activity of haemoglobin and his leadership in the development of the subject"	[103]
1980	Barton, Derek Harold RichardDerek Harold Richard Barton	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to a wide range of problems in structural and synthetic organic chemistry and , in particular, his introduction of conformational analysis into stereochemistry"	[103]
1981	Mitchell, Peter D.Peter D. Mitchell	"In recognition of his distinguished contribution to biology in his formulation and development of the chemiosmotic theory of energy transduction"	[103]
1982	Cornforth, JohnJohn Cornforth	"In recognition of his distinguished research on the stereochemically-controlled synthesis and biosynthesis of biologically important molecules"	[146]
1983	Porter, RodneyRodney Porter	"In recognition of his elucidation of the structure of immunoglobulins and of the reactions involved in activating the complement system of proteins"	—
1984	Chandrasekhar, SubrahmanyanSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar	"In recognition of his distinguished work on theoretical physics, including stellar structure, theory of radiation, hydrodynamic stability and relativity"	[147]
1985	Klug, AaronAaron Klug	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to our understanding of complex biological structures and the methods used for determining them"	—
1986	Peierls, RudolphRudolph Peierls	"In recognition of his fundamental contributions to a very wide range of theoretical physics, and signal advances in proposing the probable existence of nuclear chain reactions in fissile materials"	—
1987	Hill, RobertRobert Hill	"In recognition of his pioneering contributions to the understanding of the nature and mechanism of the main pathway of electron transport in photosynthesis"	—
1988	Atiyah, MichaelMichael Atiyah	"In recognition of his fundamental contributions to a wide range of topics in geometry, topology, analysis and theoretical physics"	[148]
1989	Milstein, CesarCesar Milstein	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to immunology, in particular to the discovery of monoclonal antibodies and to the understanding of the role of somatic mutations in the maturation of the immune response"	—
1990	Salam, AbdusAbdus Salam	"In recognition of his work on the symmetries of the laws of nature, and especially the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces"	[149]
1991	Brenner, SydneySydney Brenner	"In recognition of his many contributions to molecular genetics and developmental biology, and his recent role in the Human Genome mapping project"	—
1992	Porter, GeorgeGeorge Porter	"In recognition of his contributions to fundamental understanding of fast photochemical and photophysical processes and their role in chemistry and biology"	[150]
1993	Watson, James D.James D. Watson	"In recognition of his tireless pursuit of DNA, from the elucidation of its structure to the social and medical implications of the sequencing of the human genome"	[151]
1994	Frank, CharlesCharles Frank	"In recognition of his fundamental contribution to the theory of crystal morphology, in particular to the source of dislocations and their consequences in interfaces and crystal growth; to fundamental understanding of liquid crystals and the concept of disclination; and to the extension of crystallinity concepts to aperiodic crystals. He has also contributed through a variety of remarkable insights into a great number of physical problems"	—
1995	Fenner, FrankFrank Fenner	"In recognition of his contribution to animal virology with special emphasis on the pox and myxomatosis viruses and their relationship with the host in causing disease"	—
1996	Cottrell, AlanAlan Cottrell	"In recognition of his contribution to the understanding of mechanical properties of materials and related topics through his pioneering studies on crystal plasticity, dislocation impurity interactions, fracture and irradiation effects"	[152]
1997	Huxley, HughHugh Huxley	"In recognition of his pioneering work on the structure of muscle and on the molecular mechanisms of muscle contraction, providing solutions to one of the great problems in physiology"	—
1998	Lighthill, JamesJames Lighthill	"In recognition of his profound contributions to many fields within fluid mechanics including important aspects of the interaction of sound and fluid flow and numerous other contributions which have had practical applications in aircraft engine design. He is noted also for his ground-breaking work on both external bio-fluid-dynamics – analysis of mechanisms of swimming and flying – and internal bio-fluid-dynamics, including flow in the cardiovascular system and the airways, and cochlear mechanics and other aspects of hearing"	[153]
1999	Smith, John MaynardJohn Maynard Smith	"In recognition of his seminal contributions to evolutionary biology, including his experimental work on sexual selection, his important contributions to our understanding of ageing, his introduction of game theoretical methods for the analysis of complex evolutionary scenarios and his research into molecular evolution, both through his classic work on genetic hitchhiking, and with his more recent, ongoing work on bacterial population growth"	[154]
2000	Battersby, AlanAlan Battersby	"In recognition of his pioneering work in elucidating the detailed biosynthetic pathways to all the major families of plant alkaloids. His approach, which stands as a paradigm for future biosynthetic studies on complex molecules, combines isolation work, structure determination, synthesis, isotopic labelling and spectroscopy, especially advanced NMR, as well as genetics and molecular biology. This spectacular research revealed the entire pathway to vitamin B12"	—
2001	Miller, JacquesJacques Miller	"For his work on the immunological function of the thymus and of T cells, which has revolutionised the science of immunology. Professor Millers work is paving the way for designing new methods to improve resistance to infections, producing new vaccines, enhancing graft survival, dealing with autoimmunity and even persuading the immune system to reject cancer cells"	—
2002	Pople, JohnJohn Pople	"For his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry. His work transformed density functional theory into a powerful theoretical tool for chemistry, chemical physics and biology"	[155]
2003	Gurdon, JohnJohn Gurdon	"For his unique range of groundbreaking discoveries in the fields of cell and developmental biology. He pioneered the concept that specialised cells are genetically equivalent and that they differ only in the genes they express not the genes they contain, a concept fundamental to modern biology"	—
2004	Kroto, HaroldHarold Kroto	"in recognition of his seminal contributions to understanding the fundamental dynamics of carbon chain molecules, leading to the detection of these species (polyynes) in the interstellar medium by radioastronomy, and thence to the genesis of a new era in carbon science"	[156]
2005	Nurse, PaulPaul Nurse	"for his contributions to cell biology in general, and to the elucidation of the control of cell division."	—
2006	Hawking, StephenStephen Hawking	"For his outstanding contribution to theoretical physics and theoretical cosmology. "	[33]
2007	May, RobertRobert May	"for his seminal studies of interactions within and among biological populations that have reshaped our understanding of how species, communities and entire ecosystems respond to natural or human created disturbance."	—
2008	Penrose, RogerRoger Penrose	"for his beautiful and original insights into many areas of mathematics and mathematical physics. Sir Roger has made outstanding contributions to general relativity theory and cosmology, most notably for his work on black holes and the Big Bang."	—
2009	Evans, MartinMartin Evans	"for his seminal work on embryonic stem cells in mice, which revolutionised the field of genetics."	—
2010	Cox, DavidDavid Cox	"for his seminal contributions to the theory and applications of statistics."	[157]
	Lindahl, TomasTomas Lindahl	"for his seminal contributions to the understanding of the biochemistry of DNA repair."	[157]
2011	McKenzie, DanDan McKenzie	"For his seminal contributions to the understanding of geological and geophysical phenomena including tectonic plates."

References

General

• "Copley archive winners 1799–1731". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1744. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
• "Copley archive winners 1899–1800". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1743. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
• "Copley archive winners 1989–1900". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1742. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
• "Copley recent winners: 1900 – present". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1741. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
• "Royal Society: Copley Medal". http://royalsociety.org/Copley-Medal. 

Specific

1. ^ ^{a b} "The Copley Medal (1731)". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1736. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
2. ^ "Copley archive winners 1799–1731". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1744. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Copley Medal". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Societies/CopleyMedal.html. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
4. ^ "Copley recent winners: 1900 – present". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1741. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
5. ^ "All Nobel Laureates in Chemistry". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
6. ^ ^{a b} "Oxford DNB article:Gray, Stephen (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/11354?&docPos=2&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
7. ^ ^{a b c} "Oxford DNB article:Desaguliers, John Theophilus (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/7539?&docPos=4&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
8. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Belchier, John (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/1984?&docPos=6&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
9. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Hales, Stephen (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/11915?&docPos=7&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
10. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Stuart, Alexander (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/47081?docPos=1. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
11. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Middleton, Christopher (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/18668?&docPos=10&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
12. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Baker, Henry (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/1120?&docPos=11&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
13. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Watson, Sir William (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/28874?&docPos=12&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
14. ^ "Robins biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Robins.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
15. ^ ^{a b} Jungnickel, Christa (1996). Cavendish. DIANE publishing. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EUoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22Gowin+Knight%22+copley+medal&source=web&ots=qkgEYLbmyD&sig=7QmOJ-VITbyQ7qtheKyj-dFsF0Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
16. ^ "Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You – Timeline – James Bradley". Florida State University. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/bradley.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
17. ^ Jungnickel, Christa (1996). Cavendish. DIANE publishing. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EUoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=%22+John+Harrison%22+copley+medal&source=web&ots=qkgEYLbstx&sig=ohEXM_GtonJgNU5x08Clq5-gViA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
18. ^ "RCP Heritage – George Edwards". Royal College of Physicians. http://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/heritage/GeorgeEdwards/patrons.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
19. ^ ^{a b} Jungnickel, Christa (1996). Cavendish. DIANE publishing. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EUoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=%22John+Canton%22+copley+medal&source=web&ots=qkgEYLbtAw&sig=ZhaNt07gna2A9E3iuxvsQw2aYqo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPA100,M1. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
20. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Pringle, Sir John (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/22805. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
21. ^ "Franklin_Benjamin biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Franklin_Benjamin.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
22. ^ Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester University Press. 1969. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0c-8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22William+Lewis%22+copley+medal&source=web&ots=50dPYornfI&sig=u2zhMopQ1XYENwt-e9yVe7dPtTc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
23. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Huxham, John (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/14319?&docPos=22&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
24. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Dollond family (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/49855/7783. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
25. ^ "Engineering Timelines – John Smeaton". Engineering Timelines. http://www.engineering-timelines.com/who/Smeaton_J/smeatonJohn5.asp. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
26. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Wilson, Benjamin (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/29641?&docPos=25&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
27. ^ "The British Society for the History of Mathematics". British Society for the History of Mathematics. http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/bshm/zingaz/LondonPeopleA.html. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
28. ^ "AIM25 text-only browsing: Royal College of Surgeons of England Ellis, John (c 1710–1776)". Aim25. http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cats/9/9662.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
29. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Woulfe, Peter". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/30007?&docPos=31&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
30. ^ "Making and circulating knowledge through Sir William Hamilton's Campi Plhegraei" (PDF). The British Society for the History of Science. http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FBJH%2FBJH39_01%2FS0007087405007600a.pdf&code=f55e6aa4b80edf3a215d621ee092fd38. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
31. ^ "Berkshire History: Biographies: Lieut-Col. John Walsh (1726–1795)". Nash Ford Publishing. 2004. http://www.berkshirehistory.com/bios/jwalsh.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
32. ^ "Maskelyne biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Maskelyne.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
33. ^ ^{a b} "Stephen Hawking wins Copley Medal". Trinity College, Cambridge. http://www.trinhall.cam.ac.uk/news/article.asp?ItemID=734. Retrieved 2009-02-07. 
34. ^ "Hutton summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hutton.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
35. ^ ^{a b c} "Digital Collections – Manuscripts – Item 15a – 15z, 15(1) – 15(20): Addresses to the Royal Society, London the first on being appointed to the Chair and later addresses on presentations of the Copley Medal, 1778–1796.". National Library of Australia. http://www.nla.gov.au/cdview/nla.ms-ms9-15. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
36. ^ "Friedrich William Herschel". Florida State University. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/herschel.html. Retrieved 2009-02-07. 
37. ^ "Waring summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Waring.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
38. ^ "William Roy". Electric Scotland. http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/roy_william.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
39. ^ "John Hunter: ‘Founder of Scientific Surgery’ – HemOnc Today". HemOnc Today. http://www.hemonctoday.com/article.aspx?rid=36439. Retrieved 2009-02-08. 
40. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Blagden, Charles (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/2553?&docPos=47&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
41. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Morgan, William (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/19244?&docPos=48&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
42. ^ http://royalsociety.org/awards/copley-medal/ Royal Society - Copley Medal 2011
43. ^ "Oxford DNB article: Thompson, Sir Benjamin (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27255. Retrieved 2009-02-08. 
44. ^ "Ramsden summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Ramsden.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
45. ^ "Attwood summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Atwood.html. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
46. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Hatchett, Charles (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/12595?&docPos=55&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
47. ^ "British Society for the History of Mathematics". University of Warwick. http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/bshm/zingaz/LondonPeopleH.html#hel. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 
48. ^ Sears, Derek. "Edward Charles Howard" (PDF). University of Arkansas. http://www.uark.edu/depts/cosmo/publications/pub%20by%20year/1976%20papers/sears%201976.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
49. ^ "Cooper, Sir Astley Paston (1768–1841)". Aim25. http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=6888&inst_id=9. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
50. ^ "Wollaston". Hebrew University of Jerusalem. http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wollaston.html. Retrieved 2009-02-08. 
51. ^ Griffith, WP. "PMR: Bicentenary of Four Platinum Group Metals". Platinum Metals Review. http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dynamic/article/view/47-4-175-183. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
52. ^ Griffith, WP. "PMR: Bicentenary of Four Platinum Group Metals". Platinum Metals Review. http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dynamic/article/view/48-4-182-189. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
53. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y} "Oxford DNB theme: Holders of the Copley Medal (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/93/93188.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
54. ^ Darrow, GM. "Early Breeding in Europe". United States National Agricultural Library. http://www.nal.usda.gov/pgdic/Strawberry/book/boksix.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
55. ^ "Troughton Summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Troughton.html. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 
56. ^ Buchanan, W.W.. "Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie (1783–1862)". British Society for Rheumatology. http://rheumatology.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/42/5/689. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
57. ^ "Ivory summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Ivory.html. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 
58. ^ "Sir David Brewster (1781–1868)". University of St Andrews. http://www-ah.st-andrews.ac.uk/mgstud/reflect/david.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
59. ^ "Henry Kater (1777–1835), Scientist". National Portrait Gallery. http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp02471. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
60. ^ "SpringerLink – Book Chapter". SpringerLink. http://www.springerlink.com/content/k231425486v66866/. Retrieved 2009-02-08. 
61. ^ ^{a b} "Herschel summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Herschel.html. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 
62. ^ "William Buckland & Reliquae Diluvianae". University of Minnesota. http://www.tc.umn.edu/~allch001/1815/buckland.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-08. 
63. ^ "The British Society for the History of Mathematics". The British Society for the History of Mathematics. http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/bshm/zingaz/D.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
64. ^ "Arago summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Arago.html. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 
65. ^ "Lake County Astronomical Society". Lake County Astronomical Society. http://www.bpccs.com/lcas/Articles/jsouth.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-05. ^{[dead link]}
66. ^ The Gentleman's Magazine. The Gentleman's Magazine. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fZSNUcPL8AYC&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22Henry+Foster%22+copley+medal&source=web&ots=5khcTd1zOM&sig=6YKaCBZqF-mJ5tPSIdXnMGiVrgw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
67. ^ "Airy summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Airy.html. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 
68. ^ "Poisson summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Poisson.html. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 
69. ^ "Plana biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Plana.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
70. ^ "Chambers Search Chambers". Chambers Harrap. http://www.chambersharrap.co.uk/chambers/features/chref/chref.py/main?query=PN02036&xref=y&title=biog. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
71. ^ "Gauss summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Gauss.html. Retrieved 2009-02-08. 
72. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Brown, Robert (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3645. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
73. ^ Brock, William H. (2002). Justus Von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper. Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VugoemP2th0C&dq=%22Justus+Liebig%22+copley+medal&printsec=frontcover&source=in&hl=en&ei=Ql-XSaycEc-X-gbu8bCPCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=12&ct=result#PPA98,M1. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
74. ^ "Sturm summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Sturm.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
75. ^ "Ohm biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Ohm.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
76. ^ "MacCullagh summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/MacCullagh.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
77. ^ Morselli, Mario (1984). Amedeo Avogadro, a Scientific Biography. Springer. ISBN 9789027716248. http://books.google.com/?id=Cv2OdFwpk-kC&pg=PA129&lpg=PA129&dq=%22Carlo+Matteucci%22+copley+medal. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
78. ^ "Le Verrier biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Le_Verrier.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
79. ^ "Adams summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Adams.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
80. ^ "Own, Richard: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences". Wiley InterScience. http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/emrw/9780470015902/els/article/a0002450/current/abstract. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
81. ^ "Humboldt – Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander – von – 1769–1859 – Baron – German naturalist, geologist and explorer". University of Edinburgh. http://www.nahste.ac.uk/isaar/GB_0237_NAHSTE_P0400.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
82. ^ "BjS: Academic Lineage". Yale University. http://www.yale.edu/perception/Brian/misc/lineage/. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
83. ^ "Weber summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Weber.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
84. ^ "Darwin and the Copley Medal" (PDF). American Philosophical Society. http://www.aps-pub.com/proceedings/1454/411.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-05. ^{[dead link]}
85. ^ "Adam Sedgwick Collection". American Philosophical Society. http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/s/sedgwick.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-05. ^{[dead link]}
86. ^ "Chasles summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Chasles.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
87. ^ "Plucker summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Plucker.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
88. ^ "Helmholtz summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Helmholtz.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
89. ^ Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science. Journal of Industrial Science. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5wEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=%22August+Wilhelm+Hofmann%22+copley+medal&source=web&ots=9DZlVcbutv&sig=mS6twqbqJEb88x9cip6DWf5H5iY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA14,M1. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
90. ^ "Jean Baptiste Boussingault" (PDF). Journal of Nutrition. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/84/1/1.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
91. ^ "Clausius summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Clausius.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
92. ^ "Sylvester summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Sylvester.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
93. ^ "Cayley summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Cayley.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
94. ^ "Thompson summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Thomson.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
95. ^ "Neumann_Franz summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Neumann_Franz.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
96. ^ "Salmon summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Salmon.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
97. ^ "Newcomb summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Newcomb.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
98. ^ "Stokes summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Stokes.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
99. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland, English chemist, c 1863–1883.". Science and Society Picture Library. http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10419362. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
100. ^ "Weierstrass summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Weierstrass.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
101. ^ "Rayleigh summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Rayleigh.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03. 
102. ^ "Gibbs summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Gibbs.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
103. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab} "Oxford DNB theme: Holders of the Copley Medal". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/93/93188.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
104. ^ "Klein summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Klein.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
105. ^ "Obituary: Edwin Ray Lankester" (PDF). National Marine Biological Laboratory. http://sabella.mba.ac.uk/1304/01/Obituary_Edwin_Ray_Lankester_.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
106. ^ "Notes and Records of the Royal Society". Royal Society Publishing. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/fwufe488th0mvhlj/. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
107. ^ "Obituary notice: Horace Tabberer Brown" (PDF). Biochemical Journal. http://www.biochemj.org/bj/019/0165/0190165.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
108. ^ "Larmour summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Larmor.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
109. ^ "Lamb summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Lamb.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
110. ^ "Oxford DNB article: Hopkins, Sir Frederick (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/33977?&docPos=123&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
111. ^ "Sir Charles Sherrington – Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/sherrington-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
112. ^ "Planck summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Planck.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
113. ^ "William Bragg – Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1915/wh-bragg-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
114. ^ Sir Arthur Schuster. The Astrophysical Journal. Bibcode 1935ApJ....81...97H. 
115. ^ "George Ellery Hale: Acknowledgements". Franklin Institute. http://www.fi.edu/learn/case-files/hale-2863/reward.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
116. ^ Award of the Copley Medal of the Royal Society to Professor Theobald Smith. Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Bibcode 1933Sci....78R.598.. 
117. ^ "Oxford DNB article: Haldane, John Scott (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/33642?&docPos=128&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
118. ^ "C.T.R.Wilson – Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/wilson-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
119. ^ "Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S: Abstract". Nature. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v148/n3741/abs/148046a0.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
120. ^ "Sir Henry Dale – Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1936/dale-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
121. ^ "Bohr_Niels summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Bohr_Niels.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
122. ^ "Thomas H. Morgan – Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1933/morgan-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
123. ^ "Medal Awards of the Royal Society". Nature. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v146/n3710/abs/146750a0.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
124. ^ "Thomas Lewis". Cardiology Journal. http://www.viamedica.pl/gazety/gazeta1/darmowy_pdf.phtml?indeks=96&indeks_art=1262. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
125. ^ "Sir Robert Robinson – Biography". nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1947/robinson-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
126. ^ "Sir Joseph Barcroft of Cambridge". Archives of Disease in Childhood. http://fn.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/82/1/F75. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
127. ^ "Taylor_Geoffrey summay". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Taylor_Geoffrey.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
128. ^ "The Oswald T. Avery Collection: Biographical Information". United States National Library of Medicine. http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/Views/Exhibit/narrative/biographical.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
129. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Adrian, Edgar Douglas (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/30753?&docPos=136&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
130. ^ "Hardy summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hardy.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
131. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Hill, Archibald Vivian (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/31230?&docPos=138&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
132. ^ "Royal Society: Anniversary Address By Sir Robert Robinson, O.M., F.R.S". Nature. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v164/n4181/abs/1641023a0.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
133. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Chadwick, James (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/30912?&docPos=139&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
134. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Keilin, David (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/34256?&docPos=140&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
135. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Dirac, Paul(subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/31032?&docPos=141&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
136. ^ "Whittaker summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Whittaker.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
137. ^ "Fisher summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Fisher.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
138. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Florey, Howard (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/33182?&docPos=145&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
139. ^ "Littlewood summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Littlewood.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
140. ^ "Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet – Biography". nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1960/burnet-bio.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
141. ^ "Jeffreys summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Jeffreys.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
142. ^ "Sir Hans Adolf Krebs". nobel-winners.com. http://www.nobel-winners.com/Medicine/hans_adolf_krebs.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
143. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Hinshelwood, Sir Cyril Norman (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/32367?&docPos=152&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
144. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Chapman, Sydney (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/33888?&docPos=150&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
145. ^ "Hodge summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hodge.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
146. ^ "Emeritus Professor Sir John Cornforth – Alumni & Friends". University of Sydney. http://www.usyd.edu.au/alumni/about/profiles/individuals/john_cornforth.shtml. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
147. ^ "Chandrasekhar biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Chandrasekhar.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
148. ^ "Atiyah biography". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Atiyah.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
149. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Salam, Abdus (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/64072?&docPos=170&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
150. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Porter, George (subscription needed)". Oxford University Press. 2004. http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/77183?&docPos=171&backToResults=. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
151. ^ "Press Release – James Watson to receive Othmer Medal". Chemical Heritage Foundation. http://www.chemheritage.org/press/pr2005/pr_05_jan_22.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
152. ^ "MRS Website: Award Presentations". Materials Research Society. http://www.mrs.org/s_mrs/doc.asp?CID=14595&DID=86190. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
153. ^ "Lighthill summary". University of St Andrews. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Lighthill.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05. 
154. ^ "John Maynard Smith January 6, 1920 – April 19, 2004". Genetics. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/168/3/1105. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
155. ^ "Obituary: John A. Pople". The Observer. http://www.northwestern.edu/observer/issues/2004-04-01/obit.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
156. ^ "FSU highlights". Florida State University. http://www.fsu.edu/highlights/faculty.html. Retrieved 2009-02-15. 
157. ^ ^{a b} Two medals were awarded to celebrate the Society's 350th anniversary: "Recent award winners 2010". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/Awards. Retrieved 2010-10-06. """