English-only movement

English-only movement, also known as Official English movement, refers to a political movement for the use only of the English language in official government operations through the establishing of English as the only official language in the United States. There have been various unrelated incarnations of the movement throughout American history.

English and reasons behind English-only movement

In 1907, US President Theodore Roosevelt wrote, "We have room for but one language in this country, and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of American nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding house."^[1]

ProEnglish, the nation's leading advocates of "Official English," summarizes their belief that "in pluralistic nation such as ours, the function of government should be to foster and support the similarities that unite us, rather than institutionalize the differences that divide us." Therefore, ProEnglish "works through the courts and in the court of public opinion to defend English's historic role as America's common, unifying language, and to persuade lawmakers to adopt English as the official language at all levels of government." ^[2]

Another "Official English" advocate group, U.S. English, summarizes their belief with "the passage of English as the official language will help to expand opportunities for immigrants to learn and speak English, the single greatest empowering tool that immigrants must have to succeed."^[3]

Earlier English-only movements

In 1803, as a result of the Louisiana Purchase, the United States acquired French-speaking populations in Louisiana. After the Mexican-American War, the United States acquired about 75,000 Spanish speakers in addition to several indigenous language-speaking populations.

An 1847 law authorized Anglo-French instruction in public schools in Louisiana. In 1849, the California constitution recognized Spanish language rights. French language rights were abolished after the American Civil War.^{[citation needed]} In 1868, the Indian Peace Commission recommended English-only schooling for the Native Americans. In 1878–79, the California constitution was rewritten: "All laws of the State of California, and all official writings, and the executive, legislative, and judicial proceedings shall be conducted, preserved, and published in no other than the English language."

In the late 1880s, Wisconsin and Illinois passed English-only instruction laws for both public and parochial schools.

In 1896, under the Republic of Hawaii government, English became the primary medium of public schooling for Hawaiian children. After the Spanish-American War, English was declared "the official language of the school room" in Puerto Rico. In the same way, English was declared the official language in the Philippines, after the Philippine-American War.

During World War I, there was a widespread campaign against the use of the German language in the US; this included removing books in the German language from libraries.^[4] (A related action took place in South Australia as well with the Nomenclature Act of 1917. The legislation renamed 69 towns, suburbs or areas that had German names.)^[5]

The modern English-only movement

In 1980, Dade County, Florida voters approved an "anti-bilingual ordinance."^[6] However, this was repealed by the county commission in 1993, after "racially orientated redistricting"^[7] led to a change in government.^[8]

In 1981, English was declared the official language in the state of Virginia.

In 1983, Dr. John Tanton and U.S. Senator S. I. Hayakawa founded a political lobbying organization, U.S. English. (Tanton was a former head of the Sierra Club's population committee and of Zero Population Growth, and founder of the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR), an immigration reductionist group.) In 1986, Tanton wrote a memo containing remarks about Hispanics claimed by critics to be derogatory, which appeared in the Arizona Republic newspaper, leading to the resignations from U.S. English of board member Walter Cronkite and executive director Linda Chavez; Tanton would also sever his ties to the organization as a result. That same year, 1986, Larry Pratt founded English First, while Lou Zaeske, an engineer from Bryan, Texas, established the American Ethnic Coalition.

In 1994, Tanton and other former US English associates founded ProEnglish specifically to defend Arizona's English-only law. ProEnglish rejects the term "English-only movement" and asks its supporters to refer to the movement instead as "Official English".^[9]

The U.S. Senate voted on two separate changes to an immigration bill in May 2006.^[10][11] The amended bill recognized English as a "common and unifying language" and gave contradictory instructions to government agencies on their obligations for non-English publications.^[12]

In what was essentially a replay of the 2006 actions, on June 6, 2007 the US Senate again voted on two separate amendments to a subsequent immigration reform bill that closely resembled the amendments to the 2006 Senate bill.^{[13] [14]} Ultimately, neither the 2006 nor 2007 immigration reform bill has become law.

On January 22, 2009, voters in Nashville, Tennessee rejected a proposal under a referendum election to make "Nashville the largest city in the United States to prohibit the government from using languages other than English, with exceptions allowed for issues of health and safety." The initiative failed by a vote of 57% to 43%.^[15]

Criticism

The modern English-only movement has met with rejection from the private organization Linguistic Society of America, which passed a resolution in 1986–87 opposing "'English only' measures on the grounds that they are based on misconceptions about the role of a common language in establishing political unity, and that they are inconsistent with basic American traditions of linguistic tolerance."^[16]

Linguist Geoffrey Pullum, in an essay entitled "Here come the linguistic fascists" charges English First with "hatred and suspicion of aliens and immigrants" and points out that English is far from under threat in the United States, saying "making English the official language of the United States of America is about as urgently called for as making hotdogs the official food at baseball games."^[17]

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) have stated that "English Only" laws are inconsistent with both the First Amendment right to communicate with or petition the government, as well as free speech, and the right to equality because they bar government employees from providing non-English language assistance and services.^[18] Many academics^[who?] seem to agree.^[19] On August 11, 2000, President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order 13166, "Improving Access to Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency." The Executive Order requires Federal agencies to examine the services they provide, identify any need for services to those with limited English proficiency (LEP), and develop and implement a system to provide those services so LEP persons can have meaningful access to them.^[20].

While the judicial system has noted that the laws are largely symbolic and non prohibitive, public school staff often interpret them to mean English is the mandatory language of daily life.^{[citation needed]} In one instance, an elementary school bus driver prohibited students from speaking Spanish on their way to school after Colorado passed its legislation.^[21] In 2004 in Scottsdale, a teacher claimed to be enforcing English immersion policies when she allegedly slapped students for speaking Spanish in class.^[22] In 2005 in Kansas City, a student was suspended for speaking Spanish in the school hallways. The written discipline referral explaining the decision of the school to suspend the student for one and a half days, noted: "This is not the first time we have [asked] Zach and others to not speak Spanish at school." ^[23]

Current law

The United States federal government does not specify an official language; however, all official documents in the U.S. are written in English, though some are also published in other languages.^[24]

Place	English official	Other language(s)	Note	Ref
Alabama	Yes	No	since 1990	[25]
Alaska	Yes	No	since 2007; 1998 law ruled unconstitutional	[26]
Arizona	Yes	No	since 2006; 1988 law ruled unconstitutional	[27]
Arkansas	Yes	No	since 1987	[25]
California	Yes	No	since 1986	[25]
Colorado	Yes	No	since 1988	[25]
Connecticut	No	No		[25]
Delaware	No	No		[25]
Florida	Yes	No	since 1988	[25]
Georgia	Yes	No	since 1996	[25]
Hawaii	Yes	Hawaiian	since 1978	[25]
Idaho	Yes	No	since 2007	[25]
Illinois	Yes	No	since 1969; "American" official 1923-1969	[25]
Indiana	Yes	No	since 1984	[25]
Iowa	Yes	No	since 2002	[25]
Kansas	Yes	No	since 2007	[25]
Kentucky	Yes	No	since 1984	[25]
Louisiana	No	No		[25]
Maine	No	No		[25]
Maryland	No	No		[25]
Massachusetts	No	No		[25]
Michigan	No	No		[25]
Minnesota	No	No		[25]
Mississippi	Yes	No	since 1987	[25]
Missouri	No	No		[25]
Montana	Yes	No	since 1995	[25]
Nebraska	Yes	No	since 1923	[25]
Nevada	No	No		[25]
New Hampshire	Yes	No	since 1995	[25]
New Jersey	No	No		[25]
New Mexico	Yes	Spanish	since 1912 passage of state constitution	[28] [29] [30]
New York	No	No		[25]
North Carolina	Yes	No	since 1987	[25]
North Dakota	Yes	No	since 1987	[25]
Ohio	No	No		[25]
Oklahoma	Yes	No	since 2010	[31]
Oregon	No	No	English Plus since 1989	[25]
Pennsylvania	No	No		[25]
Rhode Island	No	No	English Plus since 1992	[25]
South Carolina	Yes	No	since 1987	[25]
South Dakota	Yes	No	since 1995	[25]
Tennessee	Yes	No	since 1984	[25]
Texas	No	No		[25]
Utah	Yes	No	since 2000	[25]
Vermont	No	No		[25]
Virginia	Yes	No	since 1981	[25]
Washington	No	No	English Plus since 1989	[25]
West Virginia	No	No		[25]
Wisconsin	No	No		[25]
Wyoming	Yes	No	since 1996	[25]
American Samoa	Yes	Samoan		[32]
District of Columbia	No	No		[citation needed]
Guam	Yes	Chamorro		[citation needed]
Northern Mariana Islands	Yes	Chamorro, Carolinian		[citation needed]
Puerto Rico	Yes	Spanish		[33]
U.S. Virgin Islands	Yes	No		[34]

See also

	United States portal
	Languages portal

• Bilingual education
• English language learning and teaching
• Languages in the United States
• List of countries where English is an official language
• Spanish in the United States

References

1. ^ Roosevelt, Theodore, Works (Memorial ed., 1926), vol. XXIV, p. 554 (New York: Charles Scribner's 11 Sons).
2. ^ "Mission of organization" at proenglish.org
3. ^ "Background of organization" at us-english.org
4. ^ Martin, James J (1988), An American Adventure in Bookburning in the Style of 1918, Ralph Myles Publisher 
5. ^ Leadbeater, Maureen M. "German Place Names in South Australia:". http://www.adelaideco-op.familyhistorysa.info/germanplacenames.htm. 
6. ^ "The Language Battle: Speaking the Truth" (PDF), Inter-American Law Review (University of Miami Law School): p. 2, 9 February 2007, archived from the original on 2011-05-15, http://www.webcitation.org/5ygfJZ29i, retrieved 2008-02-17 
7. ^ "'English only' law may be repealed in Florida county". Observer-Reporter. 3 May 1993. p. A8. "The racially orientated redistricting of the Dade County commission may accomplish what a long campaign by Hispanics has failed to do - repeal the local "English only" law." 
8. ^ "The power of language". St. Petersburg Times: p. 1D. 23 May 1993. 
9. ^ Official English Is Not "English Only", proenglish.org, archived from the original on January 21, 2008, http://web.archive.org/web/20080121110822/http://www.proenglish.org/notenglishonly.html, retrieved 2008-02-17 
10. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Inhofe Amdt. No. 4064), US Senate, 18 May 2006, http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=109&session=2&vote=00131, retrieved 2009-04-09 
11. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Salazar Amdt. No. 4073 As Modified), US Senate, 18 May 2006, http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=109&session=2&vote=00132, retrieved 2009-04-09 
12. ^ "Snopes on the English-only amendments". http://www.snopes.com/politics/immigration/englishvote.asp. Retrieved 2008-08-25. 
13. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Inhofe Amdt. No. 1151), US Senate, June 6, 2007, http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=110&session=1&vote=00198, retrieved 2009-04-09 
14. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Salazar Amdt. No. 1384), US Senate, June 6, 2007, http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=110&session=1&vote=00197, retrieved 2009-04-09 
15. ^ "English-only fails; lopsided vote ends heated campaign", The Tennessean, 23 January 2009. Retrieved on 23 January 2009.
16. ^ Geoff Nunberg (December 28, 1986), Resolution: English Only, Linguistic Society of America, http://www.lsadc.org/info/lsa-res-english.cfm, retrieved 2008-02-17 
17. ^ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (1987), "Here come the linguistic fascists.", Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 5 (4): 603–9, doi:10.1007/BF00138990.  Reprinted in Geoffrey K. Pullum. (1991), The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax and Other Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 111–19, ISBN 0-226-68534-9 
18. ^ The Rights of Immigrants -ACLU Position Paper (9/8/2000). Retrieved on 2008-12-11
19. ^ See, e.g. "Constitutional Clash: When English-only Meets Voting Rights" (Yale Law & Policy Journal), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1489911
20. ^ Executive Order 13166. Retrieved on 2008-12-11
21. ^ Gibson, Kari. English only court cases involving the U.S workplace. University of Hawai'i. Retrieved on 2008-12-11
22. ^ Anne Ryman and Ofelia Madrid, Hispanics upset by teacher's discipline, The Arizona Republic, January 17, 2004.
23. ^ T.R. Reid, Spanish At School Translates to Suspension, The Washington Post, December 9, 2005.
24. ^ "Spanish language website for the FDA". US Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/oc/spanish/. Retrieved 2008-07-05. 
25. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at} Crawford, James (June 24, 2008). "Language Legislation in the U.S.A.". languagepolicy.net. http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/langleg.htm. Retrieved April 27, 2011. 
26. ^ "Alaska Supreme Court Upholds State's Official English Law". Business Wire. November 5, 2007. http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-7143968/Alaska-Supreme-Court-Upholds-State.html. Retrieved April 28, 2011. 
27. ^ "Arizona makes English official". Washington Times. November 8, 2006. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/nov/08/20061108-115125-7910r/. Retrieved April 28, 2011. 
28. ^ The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. "Language Rights and New Mexico Statehood". New Mexico Public Education Department. http://www.ped.state.nm.us/BilingualMulticultural/dl09/Language%20Rights%20and%20New%20Mexico%20Statehood.pdf. Retrieved July 12, 2011. 
29. ^ "NMTCE New Mexico Teachers of English". New Mexico Council of Teachers of English. http://www.nmcte.org/. Retrieved July 12, 2011. 
30. ^ "All About New Mexico". Sheppard Software. http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/usaweb/snapshot/New_Mexico.htm. Retrieved July 12, 2011. 
31. ^ Slipke, Darla (November 3, 2010). "Oklahoma elections: Republican-backed measures win approval". NewsOK. The Oklahoman. http://newsok.com/article/3510853. Retrieved April 28, 2011. 
32. ^ "Samoa now an official language of instruction in American Samoa". Radio New Zealand International. 2008-10-03. http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=42333. Retrieved 2011-04-28. 
33. ^ Crawford, James. "Puerto Rico and Official English". languagepolicy.net. http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/can-pr.htm. Retrieved April 27, 2011. 
34. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". visitusvi.com. United States Virgin Islands. http://www.visitusvi.com/frequently_asked_questions. Retrieved April 27, 2011. 

Further reading

• Lynch, William. "A Nation Established by Immigrants Sanctions Employers for Requiring English to be Spoken at Work: English-Only Work Rules and National Origin Discrimination," 16 Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review 65 (2006).
• Olson, Wendy. "The Shame of Spanish: Cultural Bias in English First Legislation," Chicano-Latino Law Review 11 (1991).

External links

• U.S. English (advocates for Official English)
• Anatomy of the English-Only Movement, by James Crawford
• Institute for Language and Education Policy
• Lingo Jingo: English Only and the New Nativism, by Geoffrey Nunberg
• Iowa Passes "English Only" Measure (2/27/02)
• English-Only Movement: Its Consequences on the Education of Language Minority Children
• Language Legislation in the U.S.A.
• Statements and legal actions against English-only law^{[dead link]} by the American Civil Liberties Union
• English as the Official Language of the United States: Legal background and Analysis of Legislation in the 110th Congress