Soviet Union in World War II

Soviet Union in World War II
Stalin, U.S.President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943.
Stalin and Ribbentrop at the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

Joseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the authoritarian leader of the Soviet Union.

In August 1939, at Stalin's direction, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, containing a secret protocol, dividing the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Thereafter, Germany and the Soviet Union invaded their apportioned sections of Poland. The Soviet Union later invaded Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and part of Romania, along with an attempted invasion of Finland. Stalin and Hitler later traded proposals for a Soviet entry into the Axis Pact.

In June 1941, Germany began an invasion of the Soviet Union, before which Stalin had ignored reports of a German invasion. Stalin was confident that the total Allied war machine would eventually stop Germany,[1] and the Soviets stopped the Wehrmacht some 30 kilometers from Moscow. Over the next four years, the Soviet Union repulsed German offensives, such as at the Battle of Stalingrad and Battle of Kursk, and pressed forward to victory in large Soviet offensives such as the Vistula-Oder Offensive. Stalin began to listen to his generals more after Kursk.

Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran Conference and began to discuss a two-front war against Germany and future of Europe after the war. Berlin finally fell in April 1945, but Stalin was never fully convinced his nemesis Hitler had actually committed suicide. Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union, which suffered military casualties of approximately 35 million men.

Stalin became personally involved with questionable tactics employed during the war, including the Katyn massacre, Order No. 270, Order No. 227 and NKVD prisoner massacres. Controversy also surrounds rapes and looting in Soviet held territory along with large numbers of deaths of POWs held by the Soviets and the Soviets' treatment of their own soldiers who had spent time in German POW camps.

Contents

Pact with Hitler

Main articles: Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and Soviet–German relations before 1941

In August 1939, Stalin accepted Adolf Hitler's proposal to enter into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[2] Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on August 23, 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[3][4] The USSR was promised an eastern part of Poland, primarily populated with Ukrainians and Belarusians, in case of its dissolution, and additionally Latvia, Estonia and Finland were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,[4] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.[5] Another clause of the treaty was that Bessarabia, then part of Romania, was to be joined to the Moldovan ASSR, and become the Moldovan SSR under control of Moscow.[4]

The Pact was reached two days after the breakdown of Soviet military talks with British and French representatives in August 1939 over a potential Franco-Anglo-Soviet alliance.[6][7] Political discussions had been suspended on August 2 when Molotov stated they could not be restarted until progress was made in military talks late in August,[8] after the talks had stalled over guarantees of the Baltic states,[9][10] while the military talks upon which Molotov insisted[9] started on 11 August.[6][11] At the same time, Germany—with whom the Soviets had started secret discussions since July 29[2][12][13][14][15] -- argued that it could offer the Soviets better terms than Britain and France, with Ribbentrop insisting "there was no problem between the Baltic and the Black Sea that could not be solved between the two of us."[6][16][17] German officials stated that, unlike Britain, Germany could permit the Soviets to continue their developments unmolested, and that "there is one common element in the ideology of Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union: opposition to the capitalist democracies of the West."[16][18] By that time, Molotov obtained information regarding Anglo-German negotiations and a pessimistic report from the Soviet ambassador in France.[12] After disagreement regarding Stalin's demand to move Red Army troops through Poland and Romania (which Poland and Romania opposed),[6][11] on August 21, the Soviets proposed adjournment of military talks using the excuse that the absence of the senior Soviet personnel at the talks interfered with the autumn manoeuvres of the Soviet forces, though the primary reason was the progress being made in the Soviet-German negotiations.[11] That same day, Stalin received assurance that Germany would approve secret protocols to the proposed non-aggression pact that would grant the Soviets land in Poland, the Baltic states, Finland and Romania,[19] after which Stalin telegrammed Hitler that night that the Soviets were willing to sign the pact and that he would receive Ribbentrop on August 23.[20] Regarding the larger issue of collective security, some historians state that one reason that Stalin decided to abandon the doctrine was the shaping of his views of France and Britain by their entry into the Munich Agreement and the subsequent failure to prevent German occupation of Czechoslovakia.[21][22][23] Stalin also viewed the Pact as gaining time in an inevitable war with Hitler in order to reinforce the Soviet military and shifting Soviet borders westwards, which would be militarily beneficial in such a war.[24][25]

Stalin and Ribbentrop spent most of the night of the Pact's signing trading friendly stories about world affairs and cracking jokes (a rarity for Ribbentrop) about England's weakness, and the pair even joked about how the Anti-Comintern Pact principally scared "British shopkeepers."[26] They further traded toasts, with Stalin proposing a toast to Hitler's health and Ribbentrop proposing a toast to Stalin.[26]

Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions

German and Soviet soldiers in victory parade in Brest in front of picture of Stalin

On September 1, 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[2] On September 17 the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[27][28] Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[29] The Soviet portions lay east of the so-called Curzon Line, an ethnographic frontier between Russia and Poland drawn up by a commission of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.[30] In early 1940, the Soviets executed over 25,000 Polish POWs and political prisoners in the Katyn Forrest.[31]

Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)

In August 1939, Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem, and thereafter, forced Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to sign treaties for "mutual assistance."[29]

After unsuccessfully attempting to install a communist puppet government in Finland, in November 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland.[32] The Finnish defense defied Soviet expectations, and after stiff losses, Stalin settled for an interim peace granting the Soviet Union less than total domination by annexing only the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).[32] Soviet official casualty counts in the war exceeded 200,000,[33] while Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev later claimed the casualties may have been one million.[34] After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.[35]

In mid-June 1940, when international attention was focused on the German invasion of France, Soviet NKVD troops raided border posts in Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia.[29][36] Stalin claimed that the mutual assistance treaties had been violated, and gave six hour ultimatums for new governments to be formed in each country, including lists of persons for cabinet posts provided by the Kremlin.[29] Thereafter, state administrations were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres, followed by mass repression[29] in which 34,250 Latvians, 75,000 Lithuanians and almost 60,000 Estonians were deported or killed.[37] Elections for parliament and other offices were held with single candidates listed, the official results of which showed pro-Soviet candidates approval by 92.8 percent of the voters of Estonia, 97.6 percent of the voters in Latvia and 99.2 percent of the voters in Lithuania.[38] The resulting peoples assemblies immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union.[38]

In late June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[39] But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[39]

Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, 1941

After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin personally wrote to Ribbentrop about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."[40] Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to negotiate the terms for the Soviet Union to join the Axis and potentially enjoy the spoils of the pact.[39] At Stalin's direction,[41] Molotov insisted on Soviet interest in Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Greece,[41] though Stalin had earlier unsuccessfully personally lobbied Turkish leaders to not sign a mutual assistance pact with Britain and France.[31] Ribbentrop asked Molotov to sign another secret protocol with the statement: "The focal point of the territorial aspirations of the Soviet Union would presumably be centered south of the territory of the Soviet Union in the direction of the Indian Ocean."[41] Molotov took the position that he could not take a "definite stand" on this without Stalin's agreement.[41] Stalin did not agree with the suggested protocol, and negotiations broke down.[40] In response to a later German proposal, Stalin's stated that the Soviets would join the Axis if Germany foreclosed acting in the Soviet's sphere of influence.[42] Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.[42]

In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on April 13, 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[43] While Stalin had little faith in Japan's commitment to neutrality, he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism, to reinforce a public affection for Germany.[44] Stalin felt that there was a growing split in German circles about whether Germany should initiate a war with the Soviet Union.[44]

Hitler breaks the pact

Further information: Operation Barbarossa

During the early morning of June 22, 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[45] Before the invasion, Stalin felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[46] At the same time, Soviet generals warned Stalin that Germany had concentrated forces on its borders.[46] As well, two highly placed Soviet spies in Germany, "Starshina" and "Korsikanets", had sent dozens of reports to Moscow containing evidence of a German attack.[46][47] Further warnings came from Richard Sorge, a Soviet spy in Tokyo working under cover as a German journalist.[48]

Seven days before the invasion, a Soviet spy in Berlin warned Stalin that the movement of German divisions to the borders was for the purpose of waging war on the Soviet Union.[48] Five days before the attack, Stalin received a report from a spy in the German Air Ministry that "all preparations by Germany for an armed attack on the Soviet Union have been completed, and the blow can be expected at any time."[49] In the margin, Stalin wrote to the people's commissar for state security, "you can send your 'source' from the headquarters of German aviation to his mother. This is not a 'source' but a dezinformator."[49] Although Stalin increased Soviet western border forces to 2.7 million men and ordered them to expect a possible German invasion, he did not order a full-scale mobilization of forces to prepare for an attack.[50] Stalin felt that a mobilization might provoke Hitler to prematurely begin to wage war against the Soviet Union, which Stalin wanted to delay until 1942 in order to further strengthen Soviet forces.[51]

A theory suggested by Viktor Suvorov claims that Stalin had made aggressive preparations beginning in the late 1930s and was preparing to invade Germany in summer 1941. Thus, he believes Hitler only managed to forestall Stalin and the German invasion was in essence a pre-emptive strike, precisely as Hitler claimed himself. This theory was supported by Igor Bunich, Joachim Hoffmann, Mikhail Meltyukhov (see Stalin's Missed Chance) and Edvard Radzinsky (see Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives). Other historians and especially Gabriel Gorodetsky and David Glantz reject this thesis.[52] General Fedor von Boch's diary states that the Abwehr fully expected a Soviet attack against German forces in Poland no later than 1942.

In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[53] Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[54] However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khrushchev's account is inaccurate.[55]

In the first three weeks of the invasion, attempting to defend against large German advances, the Soviet Union suffered 750,000 casualties, and lost 10,000 tanks and 4,000 aircraft.[56] In July 1940, Stalin completely reorganized the Soviet military, placing himself directly in charge of several military organizations, which gave him complete control of his country's entire war effort; more control than any other leader in World War II.[57]

A pattern soon emerged where Stalin embraced the Red Army's strategy of conducting multiple offensives, while the Germans soon overran each of the resulting small newly gained grounds, dealing the Soviets severe casualties.[58] The most notable example of this was the Battle of Kiev, where over 600,000 Soviet troops were quickly killed, captured or had gone missing.[58]

By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[59] and the Germans had captured 3.0 million Soviet prisoners, 2.0 million of which would die in German captivity by February 1942.[56] German forces had advanced c. 1,700 kilometers, and maintained a linearly-measured front of 3,000 kilometers.[60] The Red Army put up fierce resistance during the war's early stages. Even so, according to Glantz, they were plagued by an ineffective defense doctrine against well-trained and experienced German forces, despite possessing some modern Soviet equipment such as the KV-1 and T-34 tanks.

Soviets stop the Germans

Further information: Eastern Front (World War II), Battle of Moscow, and Battle of Stalingrad

While the Germans made huge advances in 1941, killing millions of Soviet soldiers, at Stalin's direction, the Red Army directed sizable resources to prevent the Germans from achieving one of their key strategic goals, the attempted capture of Leningrad, although more than a million Soviet soldiers lost their lives in the region during the course of the war and over a million civilians died, many by starvation.[61] While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[62] The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation had deteriorated somewhat by mid-1942.[62] In November 1941, Stalin rallied his generals in a speech given underground in Moscow, telling them that the German blitzkrieg would fail because of weaknesses in the German rear in Nazi-occupied Europe and the underestimation of the strength of the Red Army, and that the German war effort would crumble against the British-American-Soviet "war engine".[63] On November 6, 1941, Stalin addressed the Soviet Union for the second time (the first was on July 2, 1941).

Correctly calculating that Hitler would direct efforts at the capture of Moscow, Stalin concentrated forces on the defense of the city, including numerous divisions transferred from Soviet eastern sectors after Stalin estimated that Japan would not attempt an attack in those areas.[64] By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 30 km of the Kremlin in Moscow.[65] On December 5, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back c. 80 km from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[65]

The Soviets then in early 1942, began a series of offensives labeled "Stalin's First Strategic Offensives", although there is no concrete evidence that Stalin actually engineered the offensives.[66] The counteroffensive bogged down, in part due to mud from rain in the Spring of 1942.[59] Stalin's attempt to retake Kharkov in the Ukraine ended in disastrous encirclement of Soviet forces, with over 200,000 Soviet casualties suffered.[67] Stalin attacked the competence of the generals involved.[68] General Georgy Zhukov and others subsequently revealed that some of those generals had wished to remain in a defensive posture in the region but Stalin and others had pushed for the offensive, though some doubt Zhukov's account.[68]

At the same time, worried by the possibility of American support after their entry into the war following the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and a potential Anglo-American invasion on the Western Front in 1942 (which would not actually happen until 1944), Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to the long-term German war effort.[69] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift his efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking move attempting to take Moscow.[68] The German southern campaign began with a push to capture the Crimea which ended in disaster for the Red Army, and caused Stalin to issue a broad scolding of his generals' leadership.[67] In their southern campaigns, the Germans took 625,000 Red Army prisoners in July and August 1942 alone.[70] At the same time, in a meeting in Moscow, Churchill privately told Stalin that the British and Americans were not yet prepared to make an amphibious landing against a fortified Nazi-held French coast in 1942, and would instead direct their efforts to invading German-held North Africa. He also pledged a campaign of massive strategic bombing, including that of German civilian targets.[71]

Feeling dizzy with success, estimating that the Russians were "finished," the Germans then began another southern operation in the fall of 1942, the Battle of Stalingrad.[70] Hitler insisted upon splitting German southern forces in a simultaneous siege of Stalingrad and an offensive against Baku on the Caspian Sea.[72] Stalin directed his generals to spare no effort or shirk any sacrifice to defend Stalingrad.[73] Although the Soviets suffered in excess of 1.1 million casualties at Stalingrad,[74] the victory over German forces, including the encirclement of 290,000 Axis troops, marked a turning point in the war.[75]

Within a year after Barbarossa, Stalin reopened the churches in the Soviet Union. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be at his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On September 4 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexy and Metropolitan Nikolay to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On September 8 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch. One account states that Stalin's reversal followed a sign that he supposedly received from heaven.[76] The story in which Ilya, Metropolitan of the Lebanon Mountains, claimed to receive a sign from heaven that "The churches and monasteries must be reopened throughout the country. Priests must be brought back from imprisonment, Leningrad must not be surrendered, but the sacred icon of Our Lady of Kazan should be carried around the city boundary, taken on to Moscow, where a service should be held, and thence to Stalingrad Tsaritsyn."[76] Shortly thereafter, Stalin's attitude changed and "Whatever the reason, after his mysterious retreat, he began making his peace with God. Something happened which no historian has yet written about. On his orders many priests were brought back to the camps. In Leningrad, besieged by the Germans and gradually dying of hunger, the inhabitants were astounded, and uplifted, to see wonder-working icon Our Lady of Kazan brought out into the streets and borne in procession."[76] Radzinsky asked, "Had he seen the light? Had fear made him run to his Father? Had the Marxist God-Man simply decided to exploit belief in God? Or was it all of these things at once?."[76]

Soviet push to Germany

Further information: Eastern Front (World War II), Battle of Kursk, Operation Bagration, Battle of Warsaw (1944), and Vistula-Oder Offensive

The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted to Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[77]

In 1943, Stalin ceded to his generals' call for the Soviet Union to take a defensive stance because of disappointing losses after Stalingrad, a lack of reserves for offensive measures and a prediction that the German's would likely next attack a bulge in the Soviet front at Kursk such that defensive preparations there would more efficiently use resources.[78] The Germans did attempt an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets[78] after Hitler canceled the offensive, in part, because of the Allied invasion of Sicily,[79] though the Soviets suffered over 800,000 casualties.[80] Kursk also marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.[81]

By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941-1942.[81] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.[82] The strategy paid off, as such industrial increases were able to occur even while the Germans in late 1942 occupied over half of European Russia, including 40% (80 million) of its population, and c. 2,500,000 square kilometers of Russian territory.[82] The Soviets had also prepared for war for over a decade, including preparing 14 million civilians with some military training.[82] Accordingly, while almost all of the original 5 million men of the Soviet army had been wiped out by the end of 1941, the Soviet military had swelled to 8 million members by the end of that year.[82] Despite substantial losses in 1942 far in excess of German losses, Red Army size grew even further, to 11 million.[82] While there is substantial debate whether Stalin helped or hindered these industrial and manpower efforts, Stalin left most economic wartime management decisions in the hands of his economic experts.[83] While some scholars claim that evidence suggests that Stalin considered, and even attempted, negotiating peace with Germany in 1941 and 1942, others find this evidence unconvincing and even fabricated.[84]

Soviet advances from 1 August 1943 to 31 December 1944:
  to 1 December 1943
  to 30 April 1944
  to 19 August 1944
  to 31 December 1944

In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.[85] Roosevelt told Stalin that he hoped that Britain and America opening a second front against Germany could initially draw 30-40 German division from the Eastern Front.[86] Stalin and Roosevelt, in effect, ganged up on Churchill by emphasizing the importance of a cross-channel invasion of German-held northern France, while Churchill had always felt that Germany was more vulnerable in the "soft underbelly" of Italy (which the Allies had already invaded) and the Balkans.[86] The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France.[87] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.[88]

In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[89] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[90] Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill closely coordinated, such that Bagration occurred at roughly the same time as American and British forces initiation of the invasion of German held Western Europe on France's northern coast.[90] The operation resulted in the Soviets retaking Belorussia and the western Ukraine, along with the successful effective destruction of the Army Group Centre and 300,000 German casualties, though at the cost of over 750,000 Soviet casualties.[90]

Successes at Operation Bagration and in the year that followed were, in large part, due to a weakened Wehrmacht that lacked the fuel and armament they needed to operate effectively,[91] growing Soviet advantages in manpower and materials, and the attacks of Allies on the Western Front.[90] In his 1944 May Day speech, Stalin praised the Western allies for diverting German resources in the Italian Campaign, Tass published detailed lists of the large numbers of supplies coming from Western allies, and Stalin made a speech in November 1944 stating that Allied efforts in the West had already quickly drawn 75 German divisions to defend that region, without which, the Red Army could not yet have driven the Wehrmacht from Soviet territories.[92] The weakened Wehrmacht also helped Soviet offensives because no effective German counter-offensive could be launched,[90]

Beginning in the summer of 1944, a reinforced German Army Centre Group did prevent the Soviets from advancing in around Warsaw for nearly half a year.[93] Some historians claim that the Soviets' failure to advance was a purposeful Soviet stall to allow the Wehrmacht to slaughter members of a Warsaw Uprising by the Polish home army in August 1944 that occurred as the Red Army approached, though others dispute the claim and cite sizable unsuccessful Red Army efforts to attempt to defeat the Wehrmacht in that region.[93] Earlier in 1944, Stalin had insisted that the Soviets would annex the portions of Poland it divided with Germany in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, while the Polish government in exile, which the British insisted must be involved in postwar Poland, demanded that the Polish border be restored to prewar locations.[94] The rift further highlighted Stalin's blatant hostility toward the anti-communist Polish government in exile and their Polish home army, which Stalin felt threatened his plans to create a post-war Poland friendly to the Soviet Union.[93] Further exacerbating the rift was Stalin's refusal to resupply the Polish home army, and his refusal to allow American supply planes to use the necessary Soviet air bases to ferry supplies to the Polish home army, which Stalin referred to in a letter to Roosevelt and Churchill as "power-seeking criminals."[95] Worried about the possible repercussions of those actions, Stalin later began a Soviet supply airdrop to Polish rebels, though most of the supplies ended up in the hands of the Germans.[96] The uprising ended in disaster with 20,000 Polish rebels and up to 200,000 civilians killed by Wehrmacht forces, with Soviet forces entering the city in January 1945.[96]

Other important advances occurred in late 1944, such as the invasion of Romania in August and Bulgaria.[96] The Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria in September 1944 and invaded the country, installing a communist government.[97] Following the invasion of these Balkan countries, Stalin and Churchill met in the fall of 1944, where they agreed upon various percentages for "spheres of influence" in several Balkan states, though the diplomats for neither leader knew what the term actually meant.[98] The Red Army also expelled German forces from Lithuania and Estonia in late 1944 at the cost of 260,000 Soviet casualties.

In late 1944, Soviet forces battled fiercely to capture Hungary in the Budapest Offensive, but could not take it, which became a topic so sensitive to Stalin that he refused to allow his commanders to speak of it.[99] The Germans held out in the subsequent Battle of Budapest until February 1945, when the remaining Hungarians signed an armistice with the Soviet Union.[99] Victory at Budapest permitted the Red Army to launch the Vienna Offensive in April 1945. To the northeast, the taking of Belorussia and the Western Ukraine permitted the Soviets to launch the massive Vistula–Oder Offensive, where German intelligence had incorrectly guessed the Soviets would have a 3-to-1 numerical superiority advantage that was actually 5-to-1 (over 2 million Red Army personnel attacking 450,000 German defenders), the successful culmination of which resulted in the Red Army advancing from the Vistula river in Poland to the German Oder river in Eastern Germany.[100]

Stalin's shortcomings as strategist are frequently noted regarding massive Soviet loss of life and early Soviet defeats. An example of it is the summer offensive of 1942, which led to even more losses by the Red Army and recapture of initiative by the Germans. Stalin eventually recognized his lack of know-how and relied on his professional generals to conduct the war.

Additionally, Stalin was well aware that other European armies had utterly disintegrated when faced with Nazi military efficacy and responded effectively by subjecting his army to galvanizing terror and nationalist appeals to patriotism. He also appealed to the Russian Orthodox church and images of national Russian people.

Final Victory

Further information: Battle of Berlin, Battle in Berlin, East Prussian Offensive, and Battle of the Oder-Neisse

By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.[101] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[102][103] Stalin still remained suspicious that western Allied forces holding at the Elbe river might move on the capital and, even in the last days, that the Americans might employ their two airborne divisions to capture the city.[104]

Stalin directed the Red Army to move rapidly in a broad front into Germany because he did not believe the Western Allies would hand over territory they occupied, while he made the overriding objective capturing Berlin.[105] After successfully capturing Eastern Prussia, three Red Army fronts converged on the heart of Eastern Germany, with one of the last pitched battles of the war putting the Soviets at the virtual gates of Berlin.[106] By April 24, Berlin was encircled by elements of two Soviet fronts,[107] one of which had begun a massive shelling of the city on April 20 that would not end until the city's surrender.[108] On April 30, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.[109] German forces surrendered a few days later. Some historians argue that Stalin delayed the last final push for Berlin by two months in order to capture other areas for political reasons, which they argue gave the Wehrmacht time to prepare and increased Soviet casualties (which exceeded 400,000), though this is contested by other historians.[110] Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[111][112] Stalin also later directed aides to spend years researching and writing a secret book about Hitler's life for his own private reading that reflected Stalin's prejudices, including an absence of criticism of Hitler for his treatment of Jews.[113]

Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union. Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[114] Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[114] Millions of Soviet soldiers and civilians disappeared into German detention camps and slave labor factories, while millions more suffered permanent physical and mental damage.[114] Economic losses, including losses in resources and manufacturing capacity in western Russia and Ukraine, were also catastrophic.[114] The war resulted in the destruction of approximately 70,000 Soviet cities, towns and villages.[115] Destroyed in that process were 6 million houses, 98,000 farms, 32,000 factories, 82,000 schools, 43,000 libraries, 6,000 hospitals and thousands of kilometers of roads and railway track.[115]

Questionable tactics

Further information: Soviet war crimes
Part of the March 5, 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers

After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,[116][117][117][118][119] NKVD officers conducted lengthy interrogations of the prisoners in camps that were, in effect, a selection process to determine who would be killed.[120] On March 5, 1940, pursuant to a note to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo (including Stalin) signed an order to execute 25,700 Polish POWs, labeled "nationalists and counterrevolutionaries", kept at camps and prisons in occupied western Ukraine and Belarus.[121] This became known as the Katyn massacre.[122][120][123] Major-General Vasili M. Blokhin, chief executioner for the NKVD, personally shot 6,000 of the captured Polish officers in 28 consecutive nights, which remains one of the most organized and protracted mass murders by a single individual on record[124][125] During his 29 year career Blokhin shot an estimated 50,000 people,[126] making him ostensibly the most prolific official executioner in recorded world history.[124]

Stalin personally told a Polish general requesting information about missing officers that all of the Poles were freed, and that not all could be accounted because the Soviets "lost track" of them in Manchuria.[127][128][129] After Polish railroad workers found the mass grave,[130] the Nazi's used the massacre to attempt to drive a wedge between Stalin and the other Allies,[131] including bringing in a European commission of investigators from twelve countries to examine the graves.[132] In 1943, as the Soviets prepared to retake Poland, Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels correctly guessed that Stalin would attempt to falsely claim that the Germans massacred the victims.[133] As Goebbels predicted, the Soviets had a "commission" investigate the matter, falsely concluding that the Germans had killed the POWs.[120] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.[134]

On August 16, 1941, in attempts to revive a disorganized Soviet defense system, Stalin issued Order No. 270, demanding any commanders or commissars "tearing away their insignia and deserting or surrendering" to be considered malicious deserters. The order required superiors to shoot these deserters on the spot.[135] Their family members were subjected to arrest.[136] The second provision of the order directed all units fighting in encirclements to use every possibility to fight.[136][136] The order also required division commanders to demote and, if necessary, even to shoot on the spot those commanders who failed to command the battle directly in the battlefield.[136] Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.[136]

In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin directed that the retreating Red Army also sought to deny resources to the enemy through a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.[55] This, along with abuse by German troops, caused starvation and suffering among the civilian population that were left behind. Stalin feared that Hitler would use disgruntled Soviet citizens to fight his regime, particularly people imprisoned in the Gulags. He thus ordered the NKVD to take care of the situation. They responded by murdering around one hundred thousand political prisoners throughout the western parts of the Soviet Union, with methods that included bayoneting people to death and tossing grenades into crowded cells.[137] Many others were simply deported east.[138][139]

In July 1942, Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that any commander or commissar of a regiment, battalion or army, who allowed retreat without permission from his superiors was subject to military tribunal.[140] The order called for soldiers found guilty of disciplinary measures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[140] From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[141] The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[140] In the first two months following the order, over 1,000 troops were shot by blocking units and blocking units sent over 130,000 troops to penal battalions.[140] Despite having some effect initially, this measure proved to have a deteriorating effect on the troops' morale, so by October 1942 the idea of regular blocking units was quietly dropped[142] By 20 November 1944 the blocking units were disbanded officially.[141]

After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped German women and girls, with total victim estimates ranging from tens of thousands to two million.[143] During and after the occupation of Budapest, (Hungary), an estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped.[144][145] Regarding rapes that occurred in Yugoslavia, Stalin responded to a Yugoslav partisan leader's complaints saying, "Can't he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometers through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?"[145]

In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[146] For example, Red Army soldiers and NKVD members frequently looted transport trains in 1944 and 1945 in Poland[147] and Soviet soldiers set fire to the city centre of Demmin while preventing the inhabitants from extinguishing the blaze,[148] which, along with multiple rapes, played a part in causing over 900 citizens of the city to commit suicide.[149] In the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, when members of the SED reported to Stalin that looting and rapes by Soviet soldiers could result in negative consequences for the future of socialism in post-war East Germany, Stalin reacted angrily: "I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud."[150][151] Accordingly, all evidence of looting, rapes and destruction by the Red Army was deleted from archives in the Soviet occupation zone.[152]

Stalin's personal military leadership was emphasied as part of the "cult of personality" after the publication of Stalin's ten victories extracted from 6 November 1944 speech "27th anniversary of the Great October socialist revolution" (Russian: «27-я годовщина Великой Октябрьской социалистической революции») during the 1944 meeting of the Moscow's Soviet deputies.

According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Russians, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags, compared with 3.5 million Soviet POW that died in German camps out of the 5.6 million taken.[153]

Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps meant determine which were potential traitors.[92] Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.[92] Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.[92] 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.[92] 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[92][154][155] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[92]

Notes

  1. ^ Stalin as War Leader History Today
  2. ^ a b c Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78
  3. ^ Encyclopedia Britanica, German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, 2008
  4. ^ a b c Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, executed August 23, 1939
  5. ^ Christie, Kenneth, Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy, RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, ISBN 0700715991
  6. ^ a b c d Roberts 2006, pp. 30–32
  7. ^ Lionel Kochan. The Struggle For Germany. 1914-1945. New York, 1963
  8. ^ Shirer, William L. (1990), The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0671728687 
  9. ^ a b Watson 2000, p. 709
  10. ^ Michael Jabara Carley (1993). End of the 'Low, Dishonest Decade': Failure of the Anglo-Franco-Soviet Alliance in 1939. Europe-Asia Studies 45 (2), 303-341.
  11. ^ a b c Watson 2000, p. 715
  12. ^ a b Watson 2000, p. 713
  13. ^ Fest, Joachim C., Hitler, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002, ISBN 0156027542, page 588
  14. ^ Ulam, Adam Bruno,Stalin: The Man and His Era, Beacon Press, 1989, ISBN 080707005X, page 509-10
  15. ^ Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0671728687, page 503
  16. ^ a b Fest, Joachim C., Hitler, Harcourt Brace Publishing, 2002 ISBN 0156027542, page 589-90
  17. ^ Vehviläinen, Olli, Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia, Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0333801490, page 30
  18. ^ Bertriko, Jean-Jacques Subrenat, A. and David Cousins, Estonia: Identity and Independence, Rodopi, 2004, ISBN 9042008903 page 131
  19. ^ Murphy 2006, p. 23
  20. ^ Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0671728687, pages 528
  21. ^ Max Beloff The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia. vol. II, I936-41. Oxford University Press, 1949. p. 166, 211.
  22. ^ For example, in his article From Munich to Moscow, Edward Hallett Carr explains the reasons behind signing a non-aggression pact between USSR and Germany as follows: Since 1934 the U.S.S.R. had firmly believed that Hitler would start a war somewhere in Europe: the bugbear of Soviet policy was that it might be a war between Hitler and the U.S.S.R. with the western powers neutral or tacitly favourable to Hitler. In order to conjure this bugbear, one of three alternatives had to be envisaged: (i) a war against Germany in which the western powers would be allied with the U.S.S.R. (this was the first choice and the principal aim of Soviet policy from 1934–38); (2) a war between Germany and the western powers in which the U.S.S.R. would be neutral (this was clearly hinted at in the Pravda article of September 21st, 1938, and Molotov's speech of November 6th, 1938, and became an alternative policy to (i) after March 1939, though the choice was not finally made till August 1939); and (3) a war between Germany and the western powers with Germany allied to the U.S.S.R. (this never became a specific aim of Soviet policy, though the discovery that a price could be obtained from Hitler for Soviet neutrality made the U.S.S.R. a de facto, though non-belligerent, partner of Germany from August 1939 till, at any rate, the summer of 1940)., see E. H. Carr., From Munich to Moscow. I., Soviet Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, (Jun., 1949), pp. 3–17. Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
  23. ^ This view is disputed by Werner Maser and Dmitri Volkogonov
  24. ^ Yuly Kvitsinsky. Russia-Germany: memoirs of the future, Moscow, 2008 ISBN 5899350873 p.95
  25. ^ Watson 2000, pp. 695–722
  26. ^ a b Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0671728687, pages 541
  27. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 43
  28. ^ Sanford, George (2005). Katyn and the Soviet Massacre Of 1940: Truth, Justice And Memory. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415338735. 
  29. ^ a b c d e Wettig 2008, p. 20
  30. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 37
  31. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 45
  32. ^ a b Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin's Cold War, New York : Manchester University Press, 1995, ISBN 0719042011
  33. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 52
  34. ^ Mosier, John, The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread the Strategic Realities of World War II, HarperCollins, 2004, ISBN 0060009772, page 88
  35. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 53
  36. ^ Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 9789042022256
  37. ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. pp. 334. 
  38. ^ a b Wettig 2008, p. 21
  39. ^ a b c Brackman 2001, p. 341
  40. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 58
  41. ^ a b c d Brackman 2001, p. 343
  42. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 59
  43. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 63
  44. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 66
  45. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 82
  46. ^ a b c Roberts 2006, p. 67
  47. ^ Ferguson, Niall (2005-06-12). "Stalin's Intelligence". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E06E4D71638F931A25755C0A9639C8B63. Retrieved 2010-05-07. 
  48. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 68
  49. ^ a b Murphy 2006, p. xv
  50. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 69
  51. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 70
  52. ^ see e.g. Teddy J. Uldricks. The Icebreaker Controversy: Did Stalin Plan to Attack Hitler? Slavic Review, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 626-643. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2697571 or Gabriel Gorodetsky. Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia p. 5. Published by Yale University Press, 2001. ISBN 0300084595
  53. ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5)
  54. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 89
  55. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 90
  56. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 85
  57. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 97
  58. ^ a b Roberts 2006, pp. 99–100
  59. ^ a b Roberts 2006, pp. 116–7
  60. ^ Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, October 11, 2001, page 7
  61. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 106
  62. ^ a b Roberts 2006, pp. 114–115
  63. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 110
  64. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 108
  65. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 88
  66. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 112
  67. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 122
  68. ^ a b c Roberts 2006, pp. 124–5
  69. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 117–8
  70. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 126
  71. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 135–140
  72. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 128
  73. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 134
  74. ^ Сталинградская битва
  75. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 154
  76. ^ a b c d (Radzinsky 1996, p.472-3)
  77. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 155
  78. ^ a b Roberts 2006, pp. 156–7
  79. ^ McCarthy, Peter, Panzerkrieg: The Rise and Fall of Hitler's Tank Divisions, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003, ISBN 0786712643, page 196
  80. ^ Russian Central Military Archive TsAMO, f. (16 VA), f.320, op. 4196, d.27, f.370, op. 6476, d.102, ll.6, 41, docs from the Russian Military Archive in Podolsk. Loss records for 17 VA are incomplete. It records 201 losses for 5–8 July. From 1–31 July it reported the loss of 244 (64 in air-to-air combat, 68 to AAA fire. It reports a further 108 missing on operations and four lost on the ground. 2 VA lost 515 aircraft missing or due to unknown/unrecorded reasons, a further 41 in aerial combat and a further 31 to AAA fire, between 5–18 July 1943. Furthermore, another 1,104 Soviet aircraft were lost between 12 July and 18 August. Bergström, Christer (2007). Kursk — The Air Battle: July 1943. Chervron/Ian Allen. ISBN 978-1-903223-88-8, page 221.
  81. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 159
  82. ^ a b c d e Roberts 2006, p. 163
  83. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 164–5
  84. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 165–7
  85. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 180
  86. ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 181
  87. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 185
  88. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 186–7
  89. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 194–5
  90. ^ a b c d e Roberts 2006, pp. 199–201
  91. ^ Williams, Andrew, D-Day to Berlin. Hodder, 2005, ISBN 0340833971, page 213
  92. ^ a b c d e f g Roberts 2006, pp. 202–3
  93. ^ a b c Roberts 2006, pp. 205–7
  94. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 208–9
  95. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 214–5
  96. ^ a b c Roberts 2006, pp. 216–7
  97. ^ Wettig 2008, p. 49
  98. ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 218–21
  99. ^ a b Erickson, John, The Road to Berlin, Yale University Press, 1999 ISBN 0300078137, page 396-7.
  100. ^ Duffy, C., Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany 1945, Routledge, 1991, ISBN 0-415-22829-8
  101. ^ Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, October 11, 2001 [1]
  102. ^ Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0670886955, page 194
  103. ^ Williams, Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin. Hodder. ISBN 0340833971., page 310-1
  104. ^ Erickson, John, The Road to Berlin, Yale University Press, 1999 ISBN 0300078137, page 554
  105. ^ Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0670886955, page 219
  106. ^ Ziemke, Earl F (1969), Battle for Berlin End of the Third Reich Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II (Battle Book #6), Ballantine Books, page 71
  107. ^ Ziemke, Earl F, Battle For Berlin: End Of The Third Reich, NY:Ballantine Books, London:Macdomald & Co, 1969, pages 92-94
  108. ^ Beevor, Antony, Revealed" Hitler's Secret Bunkers (2008)
  109. ^ Bullock, Alan, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140135642, 1962, pages 799-800
  110. ^ Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, October 11, 2001, pages 91-93
  111. ^ Kershaw, Ian, Hitler, 1936-1945: Nemesis, W. W. Norton & Company, 2001, ISBN 0393322521, pages 1038-39
  112. ^ Dolezal, Robert, Truth about History: How New Evidence Is Transforming the Story of the Past, Readers Digest, 2004, ISBN 0762105232, page 185-6
  113. ^ Eberle, Henrik, Matthias Uhl and Giles MacDonogh, The Hitler Book: The Secret Dossier Prepared for Stalin from the Interrogations of Hitler's Personal Aides, PublicAffairs, 2006, ISBN 1586484567. A reprint of one of only two existing copies. This copy was Nikita Khrushchev's, and was deposited in the Moscow Party archives where it was later found by Henrik Eberle and Matthias Uhl, and made public for the first time in 2006. As of 2006, the only other known copy is in kept in a safe by Vladimir Putin.
  114. ^ a b c d Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, October 11, 2001, page 13
  115. ^ a b Roberts 2006, pp. 4–5
  116. ^ (Polish) obozy jenieckie zolnierzy polskich (Prison camps for Polish soldiers) Encyklopedia PWN. Last accessed on 28 November 2006.
  117. ^ a b (Polish) Edukacja Humanistyczna w wojsku. 1/2005. Dom wydawniczy Wojska Polskiego. ISNN 1734-6584. (Official publication of the Polish Army)
  118. ^ (Russian) Молотов на V сессии Верховного Совета 31 октября цифра «примерно 250 тыс.» (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means)
  119. ^ (Russian) Отчёт Украинского и Белорусского фронтов Красной Армии Мельтюхов, с. 367. [2] (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means)
  120. ^ a b c Fischer, Benjamin B., "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field", Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1999-2000.
  121. ^ Excerpt from the minutes No. 13 of the Politburo of the Central Committee meeting, shooting order of March 5, 1940 online, last accessed on 19 December 2005, original in Russian with English translation
  122. ^ Sanford, Google Books, p. 20-24.
  123. ^ "Stalin's Killing Field" (PDF). https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/pdf/v43i3a06p.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-19. 
  124. ^ a b Parrish, Michael (1996). The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. pp. 324–325. ISBN 0275951138. http://isbndb.com/d/book/the_lesser_terror.html. 
  125. ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2005-09-13). Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 197–8, 332–4. ISBN 9781400076789. http://isbndb.com/d/book/stalin_the_court_of_the_red_tsar_a02.html. 
  126. ^ Katyn executioners named Gazeta Wyborcza. December 15, 2008
  127. ^ (Polish) Various authors. Biuletyn „Kombatant” nr specjalny (148) czerwiec 2003 Special Edition of Kombatant Bulletin No.148 6/2003 on the occasion of the Year of General Sikorski. Official publication of the Polish government Agency of Combatants and Repressed
  128. ^ Ромуальд Святек, "Катынский лес", Военно-исторический журнал, 1991, №9, ISSN 0042-9058
  129. ^ Brackman 2001
  130. ^ (Polish) Barbara Polak (2005). "Zbrodnia katynska" (pdf). Biuletyn IPN: 4–21. http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=f4349d43-b13d-4c2c-a70d-056e8801493d. Retrieved 2007-09-22. 
  131. ^ Engel, David. "[3] Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945]". 1993. ISBN 0-8078-2069-5.
  132. ^ Bauer, Eddy. "The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War II". Marshall Cavendish, 1985
  133. ^ Goebbels, Joseph. The Goebbels Diaries (1942–1943). Translated by Louis P. Lochner. Doubleday & Company. 1948
  134. ^ "CHRONOLOGY 1990; The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe." Foreign Affairs, 1990, pp. 212.
  135. ^ Text of Order No. 270
  136. ^ a b c d e Roberts 2006, p. 98
  137. ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 391
  138. ^ Anne Applebaum. Gulag: A History, Doubleday, 2003 (ISBN 0-7679-0056-1)
  139. ^ Richard Rhodes (2002). Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-375-40900-9.  See also: Allen Paul. Katyn: Stalin’s Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection, Naval Institute Press, 1996, (ISBN 1-55750-670-1), p. 155
  140. ^ a b c d Roberts 2006, p. 132
  141. ^ a b G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7
  142. ^ Catherine Merridale. Ivan's War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939-1945. Page 158. Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 0805074554
  143. ^ Schissler, Hanna The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968
  144. ^ Mark, James, "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944-1945", Past & Present — Number 188, August 2005, page 133
  145. ^ a b Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Cambridge: Belknap, 1995, ISBN 0-674-78405-7, pages 70-71
  146. ^ Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Penguin Books, 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5. Specific reports also include Report of the Swiss legation in Budapest of 1945 and Hubertus Knabe: Tag der Befreiung? Das Kriegsende in Ostdeutschland (A day of liberation? The end of war in Eastern Germany), Propyläen 2005, ISBN 3549072457 German).
  147. ^ Urban, Thomas, Der Verlust, Verlag C. H. Beck 2004, ISBN 3406541569, page 145
  148. ^ Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0670886955
  149. ^ Buske, Norbert (Hg.): Das Kriegsende in Demmin 1945. Berichte Erinnerungen Dokumente (Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Landeskundliche Hefte), Schwerin 1995
  150. ^ Wolfgang Leonhard, Child of the Revolution ,Pathfinder Press, 1979, ISBN 0-906133-26-2
  151. ^ Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7
  152. ^ Wolfgang Leonhard, Child of the Revolution, Pathfinder Press, 1979, ISBN 0-906133-26-2.
  153. ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia p.568–569
  154. ^ (“Военно-исторический журнал” (“Military-Historical Magazine”), 1997, №5. page 32)
  155. ^ Земское В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944-1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. № 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4

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