Environment of Hawaii

Hawi wind farm near Hāwī, Hawai'i. The wind farm has 16 Vestas V47-660 kW wind turbines for a total nameplate capacity of 10.56 MW

The majority of environmental concerns affecting Hawaii today are related to pressures from increasing human and animal population in the limited separation space of the islands.^[1]

Flora and fauna

A number of plant species are now extinct due to grazing livestock, and aggressive non-indigenous species taking over the land.^[2] Almost 40% of the endangered species in the United States are Hawaiian species, while nearly 75% of all U.S. extinctions have occurred in Hawaii.^[3]

The native flora was once 89% endemic species, but the flora of Hawaii now includes more than 1044 introduced plant species; more than 100 of these are likely to be invasive in natural areas. Species such as the strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), and christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) have spread across wide areas, competing with native species and altering the natural ecosystem. Recent invaders like miconia or velvet tree (Miconia calvescens) and Himalayan raspberry (Rubus ellipticus) are now permanently established over large areas. These species are predicted to decrease watershed function.^[4]

Prior to the arrival of non-natives, some bird species were made extinct, or pushed to near extinction from the collection of feathers by Native Hawaiians. With the arrival of James Cook in 1778, a new set of environmental threats emerged. Alien species such as cats, dogs, rabbits, pigs, and rats affected a number of indigenous species. Hawaii is known as the "extinction capital of the world" with the extinction of nearly half (140) of its historically recorded native bird species.^[5] Some of the alien species that are currently affecting Hawaii include cane toads, mongoose, coquí frogs, gall wasps, Mediterranean, Oriental, and melon flies that damage crops, ants that destroy native insects, and bacteria that infect waters.^[2][6]

Air quality

See also: Air pollution in the United States

Compared with the mainland United States, Hawaii's rating on the air quality index is ranked among the best. Approximately 47% of all emissions are caused by burning fossil fuel for electricity production. Ground transport is the second biggest contributor with 22%, while air transport contributes 19%.^[7]

Water quality

The groundwater and drinking water quality is considered good, but the waters surrounding the Hawaiian Islands are affected by effluents generated and released from the islands themselves. Floating plastic garbage is a problem, and refuse from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is affecting beaches in Hawaii, such as Kamilo Beach.

Hawaii Clean Energy Initiative

On January 28, 2008, the State of Hawaii and the US Department of Energy signed a memorandum of understanding ^[8] and announced the Hawaii Clean Energy Initiative, which has a goal to use renewable resources such as wind, sun, ocean, geothermal, and bioenergy to supply 70 percent or more of Hawaii's energy needs by 2030 and to reduce the state's dependence on imported oil.^[9][10]

The Initiative's efforts will focus on working with public and private partners on several clean energy projects throughout the state including: designing cost-effective approaches for 100 percent use of renewable energy on smaller islands, designing systems to improve stability of electrical grids operating with variable generating sources, such as wind power plants on the Island of Hawaii and Maui, and expanding Hawaii's capability to use locally grown crops as byproducts for producing fuel and electricity.^[11]

Public/Private Partners

• United States Department of Energy - EERE
• Hawaii
• Hawaiian Electric Company
• Phoenix Motorcars
• Better Place

Climate change and renewable energy

Legislation

Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle has approved a number of energy-related bills to address climate change and promote local renewable energy production. The governor's energy bill-signing streak started in late April 2008 with the approval of House Bill 2502, which allows solar energy facilities to be located on less-productive agricultural lands, followed in late May by the approval of HB 3179, which makes it easier for biofuel producers to lease state lands. In the same time frame, the governor approved SB 2034, SB 3190, and HB 2168, which authorize special purpose revenue bonds to help finance a 2.7-megawatt wave energy facility off the coast of Maui, a solar energy facility on Oahu, and hydrogen generation and conversion facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority, located on the island of Hawaii.

Senate Bill 644, approved on June 26, 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010. The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources, homes using other renewable energy sources, and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters. The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes.

On June 6, 2008 the governor approved SB 988, which allows the Hawaii Public Utility Commission to establish a rebate for solar photovoltaic electric systems, and HB 2550, which encourages net metering for residential and small commercial customers.

On July 1, 2008 the governor approved the final three energy bills, including HB 2863, which provides streamlined permitting for new renewable energy facilities of at least 200 megawatts in capacity. HB 2505 creates a full-time renewable energy facilitator to help the state expedite those permits, while a third bill, HB 2261, will provide loans of up to $1.5 million and up to 85% of the cost of renewable energy projects at farms and aquaculture facilities.

Coal phase out

Hawaii has banned new coal plants^[12] beyond the only operating coal-fired power plant in the state, AES Hawaii Power Plant.^[13]

Algal fuel

Main article: Algal fuel

Two companies and two Hawaiian electric utilities are teaming up to develop a commercial-scale microalgae facility on Maui for the production of biodiesel and other products.

HR BioPetroleum, Inc. and Alexander & Baldwin, Inc. announced in mid-July that they have signed a memorandum of understanding with Hawaiian Electric Company and Maui Electric Company to pursue the development of the algae farm, with HR BioPetroleum managing the overall project and Alexander & Baldwin providing land next to a Maui Electric power plant. The two utilities—both subsidiaries of Hawaiian Electric Industries, Inc.—will help engineer piping to carry emissions from the neighboring power plant to the algae facility. The project is contingent upon a number of factors, including positive results from HR BioPetroleum's pilot-scale and demonstration-scale algae facilities.

If the project goes forward, the facility should begin operating in 2011. During operation, the algae will grow in the carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere of the power plant emissions, converting some of those emissions into algae. The oil will then be extracted from the algae, combined with local vegetable oils, and converted into biodiesel fuel. Microalgae have significant potential as an energy crop, with the levels of oil production per acre potentially far exceeding the levels found in vegetable oil crops. HR BioPetroleum is currently working with Royal Dutch Shell plc on a pilot facility to grow algae on land leased from the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority, which is located on the west shore of the island of Hawaii. See the HR BioPetroleum press release and Web page on its joint venture with Shell.

List of Superfund sites in Hawaii

Map of superfund sites in Hawaii

This is a list of Superfund sites in Hawaii designated under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) environmental law. The CERCLA federal law of 1980 authorized the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create a list of polluted locations requiring a long-term response to clean-up hazardous material contaminations.^[14] These locations are known as Superfund sites, and are placed on the National Priorities List (NPL). The NPL guides the EPA in "determining which sites warrant further investigation" for environmental remediation.^[15] As of May 1, 2010, there were three Superfund sites on the National Priorities List in Hawaii.^[15] One further site has been cleaned up and removed from the NPL; no sites are currently proposed for addition.^[15] All sites are on the island of Oahu.

      Deleted from National Priorities List

CERCLIS ID	Name	County	Reason	Proposed	Listed[16]	Construction completed[17]	Partially deleted[18]	Deleted[19]
HID980637631	Del Monte Corp. (Oahu Plantation)	Honolulu	Soil and shallow groundwater at the site have been contaminated with the fumigants EDB, DBCP, and DCP, the solvents TCP and benzene and the pesticide lindane.[20]	05/10/1993	12/16/1994	09/08/2008	01/13/2004	–
HI0170090054	Naval Computer & Telecommunications Area	Honolulu	Soil contamination in different areas by PCBs, volatile organics, semi-volatile organics and metals.[21]	01/18/1994	05/31/1994	–	–	–
HI4170090076	Pearl Harbor Naval Complex	Honolulu	Soil, groundwater and sediment are contaminated with metals, organic compounds and petroleum hydrocarbons.[22]	07/29/1991	10/14/1992	–	–	–
HI7210090026	Schofield Barracks (U.S. Army)	Honolulu	Groundwater contains trichloroethylene.[23]	07/14/1989	08/30/1990	09/23/1998	–	08/10/2000

See also

• Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands
• Ethanol fuel in Hawaii
• List of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands

References

1. ^ "Environmental Center at University of Hawaii Manoa". University of Hawaii. http://www.hawaii.edu/envctr/. Retrieved 2008-12-08. 
2. ^ ^{a b} Yoon, Carol Kaesuk (1992-12-29). "Alien Species Threaten Hawaii's Environment". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CEED6103CF93AA15751C1A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2008-12-08. 
3. ^ Reeser, D.; B. Harry (Nov. 2005). "Controlling Ungulate Populations in native ecosystems in Hawaii" (PDF). Position Paper. Hawaii Conservation Alliance. http://hawaiiconservation.org/_library/documents/ungulates.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-08. 
4. ^ Johnson, T. (2005-12-03). "Biological control of weeds in Hawaiian forests" (PDF). Position Paper. Hawaii Conservation Alliance. http://hawaiiconservation.org/_library/documents/biocontrol.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-08. 
5. ^ Groombridge, Jim (2008-01-28). "Hawaii: extinction capital of the world". Features & Special Reports. Natural Environment Research Council. http://planetearth.nerc.ac.uk/features/story.aspx?id=129. Retrieved 2008-12-08. 
6. ^ "Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk (HEAR)" (HTML). website. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR). http://www.hear.org/. Retrieved 2009-06-15. 
7. ^ Kaya, Maurice H. (2002-05-01). "Hawaii: Energy, the Environment, and the Economy". Air Pollution as a Climate Forcing: A Workshop. East-West Center: Goddard Institute for Space Studies. http://www.giss.nasa.gov/meetings/pollution2002/d3_kaya.html. Retrieved 2008-12-08. 
8. ^ http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/pdfs/hawaii_mou.pdf
9. ^ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/office_eere/hawaii_clean_energy.html
10. ^ http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/2229/73/
11. ^ http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-01/31/content_7529675.htm
12. ^ http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/2229/73/
13. ^ "Existing Electric Generating Units in the United States, 2006" (Excel). Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy. 2006. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/capacity/capacity.html. Retrieved 2008-07-14. 
14. ^ P.L. 96-510, 42 U.S.C. §§ 9601–9675), December 11, 1980.
15. ^ ^{a b c} "National Priorities List". United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/npl/. Retrieved 2010-05-01. 
16. ^ "Final NPL sites". EPA. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/query/queryhtm/nplfin.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-01. 
17. ^ "Construction Completions at NPL sites". EPA. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/query/queryhtm/nplccl.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-01. 
18. ^ "Partial deletions at NPL sites". EPA. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/query/queryhtm/nplpdel.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-01. 
19. ^ "Deleted NPL sites". EPA. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/query/queryhtm/npldel.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-01. 
20. ^ "Del Monte Corp. (Oahu Plantation)". http://yosemite.epa.gov/r9/sfund/r9sfdocw.nsf/ViewByEPAID/hid980637631?OpenDocument. Retrieved 2009-12-06. 
21. ^ "Naval Computer & Telecommunications Area". http://yosemite.epa.gov/r9/sfund/r9sfdocw.nsf/ViewByEPAID/hi0170090054?OpenDocument. Retrieved 2009-12-06. 
22. ^ "Pearl Harbor Naval Complex". http://yosemite.epa.gov/r9/sfund/r9sfdocw.nsf/ViewByEPAID/hi4170090076?OpenDocument. Retrieved 2009-12-06. 
23. ^ "Schofield Barracks (U.S. Army)". http://yosemite.epa.gov/r9/sfund/r9sfdocw.nsf/ViewByEPAID/hi7210090026?OpenDocument. Retrieved 2009-12-06. 

External links

• Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR): invasive species information for Hawaii and the Pacific
• EPA list of Superfund sites in the United States
• EPA list of Superfund sites in Hawaii

•  This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/enn.cfm#id_11861".