Ford Model T

Ford Model T

Manufacturer	Ford Motor Company
Production	1908–1927
Assembly	Detroit, US; Highland Park, US; Minneapolis, US Buenos Aires, Argentina; Geelong, Australia; São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil; Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Walkerville, Ontario; Copenhagen, Denmark; Manchester, England; Berlin, Germany; Cork, Ireland
Predecessor	Ford Model S
Successor	Ford Model A
Class	Full-size Ford, economy car
Body style	2-door touring (1909–11) 3-door touring (1912–1925) 4-door touring (1926–1927) no door roadster (1909–11) 1-door roadster(1912–1925) 2-door roadster (1926–1927) roadster pickup (1925–1927) 2-door coupé (1909–1912, 1917–1927) 2-door Coupelet (1915–17) Town car (1909–1918) C-cab wagon (1912) 2-(Center)door sedan (1915–1923) 2-door sedan (1924–1927) 4-door sedan (1923–1927) Separate chassis were available all years for independent coachbuilders
Layout	FR layout
Engine	177 C.I.D. (2.9 L) 20 hp I4
Transmission	2-speed planetary gear
Wheelbase	99.0 in (2,515 mm)
Length	134 in (3,404 mm)
Curb weight	1,200 pounds (540 kg)
Designer	Henry Ford, Childe Harold Wills, Joseph A. Galamb and Eugene Farkas

The Ford Model T (colloquially known as the Tin Lizzie, Flivver, T‑Model Ford, or T) is an automobile that was produced by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company from September 1908 through May 1927.^[1] It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, the car that opened travel to the common middle-class American; some of this was because of Ford's innovations, including assembly line production instead of individual hand crafting.^[2] The Ford Model T was named the world's most influential car of the 20th century in an international poll.^[3]

The Model T set 1908 as the historic year that the automobile became popular. The first production Model T was produced on August 12, 1908^[4] and left the factory on September 27, 1908, at the Piquette Plant in Detroit, Michigan. On May 26, 1927, Henry Ford watched the 15 millionth Model T Ford roll off the assembly line at his factory in Highland Park, Michigan.^[5]

There were several cars produced or prototyped by Henry Ford from the founding of the company in 1903 until the Model T came along. Although he started with the Model A, there were not 19 production models (A through T); some were only prototypes. The production model immediately before the Model T was the Model S,^[6] an upgraded version of the company's largest success to that point, the Model N. The follow-up was the Ford Model A and not the Model U. Company publicity said this was because the new car was such a departure from the old that Henry wanted to start all over again with the letter A. As it happens, the first Plymouth car (1928), built by competitor Chrysler Corporation, was named Model U.

The Model T was the first automobile mass produced on assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, marketed to the middle class.^{[citation needed]} Henry Ford said of the vehicle:

"I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be large enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run and care for. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one – and enjoy with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God's great open spaces."^[7][8][9]

Characteristics

1908 Ford Model T advertisement

The Ford Model T car was designed by Childe Harold Wills and two Hungarian immigrants, Joseph A. Galamb^[10] and Eugene Farkas.^[11] Henry Love, C. J. Smith, Gus Degner and Peter E. Martin were also part of the team.^[12] While production of the Model T began in the autumn of 1908,^[13] model years range from 1909 to 1927.

Engine and means of starting

Main article: Ford Model T engine

The Model T had a 177-cubic-inch (2.9 L) front mounted inline four-cylinder en bloc engine (that is, all four cylinders in one block, as common now, rather than in individual castings, as common then) producing 20 hp (15 kW) for a top speed of 40–45 mph (64–72 km/h). The Model T four-cylinder sidevalve engine was first in the world with a detachable head, making service like valve jobs easier. According to Ford Motor Company, the Model T had fuel economy on the order of 13–21 mpg_-US (16–25 mpg_-imp; 18–11 L/100 km).^[14] The engine was capable of running on petrol, kerosene, or ethanol,^[15][16] although the decreasing cost of petrol and the later introduction of Prohibition made ethanol an impractical fuel.

1926 engine

A flywheel magneto was an electrical generator that produced the high voltage necessary to produce a spark to initiate combustion. This voltage was distributed by the timer (analogous to a distributor in a modern vehicle) to one of the four trembler coils, one for each cylinder. The coil created a high voltage current, directly connected to the spark plug in the cylinder. Ignition timing was adjusted manually by using the spark advance lever mounted on the steering column which rotated the timer. A battery could be used for starting current: at hand-cranking speed, the magneto did not always produce sufficient current (a starting battery was not standard equipment until sometime in 1926, though all T's had a bat position on the coil box switch). A certain amount of skill and experience was required to find the optimal timing for any speed and load. When electric headlights were introduced in 1915, the magneto was upgraded to supply power for the lights and horn. In keeping with the goal of ultimate reliability and simplicity, the trembler coil and magneto ignition system was retained even after the car became equipped with a generator^[17] and battery for electric starting and lighting. Most cars sold after 1919 were equipped with electric starting, which was engaged by a small round button on the floor.

1910 Model T, photographed in Salt Lake City

Before starting a Model T with the hand crank, the spark had to be manually retarded or the engine might "kick back". The crank handle was cupped in the palm, rather than grabbed with the thumb under the top of the handle, so that if the engine did kick back, the rapid reverse motion of the crank would throw the hand away from the handle, rather than violently twisting the wrist or breaking the thumb. Most Model T Fords had the choke operated by a wire emerging from the bottom of the radiator where it could be operated with the left hand. This was used to prime the engine while cranking the engine slowly then starting the engine with the left hand with a rapid pull of the crank handle. The car only had to be cranked half a turn for it to successfully start. This "quick start" is because of the engine's small displacement and low compression.

The car's 10 US gal (38 l; 8 imp gal) fuel tank was mounted to the frame beneath the front seat; one variant had the carburetor (a Holley Model G) modified to run on ethyl alcohol, to be made at home by the self-reliant farmer. Because Ford relied on gravity to feed fuel to the carburetor rather than a fuel pump, a Model T could not climb a steep hill when the fuel level was low. The immediate solution was to climb steep hills in reverse. In 1926, the fuel tank was moved forward to under the cowl on most models.^[18]

Early on, the engine blocks were to be produced by the Lakeside Foundry on St. Jean in Detroit. Ford cancelled the deal before many were produced.

The first few hundred Model Ts had a water pump, but it was eliminated early in production. Ford opted for a cheaper and more reliable thermo-syphon system. Hot water, being less dense, would rise to the top of the engine and up into the top of the radiator, descending to the bottom as it cooled, and back into the engine. This was the direction of water flow in most cars which did have water pumps, until the introduction of crossflow radiator designs. Many types of water pumps were available as aftermarket accessories.

Transmission and drivetrain

1925 Ford "New Model" T Tudor Sedan

The Model T was a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Its transmission was a planetary gear type billed as "three speed". In today's terms it would be considered a two-speed, because one of the three speeds was reverse.

The Model T's transmission was controlled with three foot pedals and a lever that was mounted to the road side of the driver's seat. The throttle was controlled with a lever on the steering wheel. The left pedal was used to engage the gear. With the handbrake in either the mid position or fully forward and the pedal pressed and held forward the car entered low gear. When held in an intermediate position the car was in neutral, a state that could also be achieved by pulling the floor-mounted lever to an upright position. If the lever was pushed forward and the driver took his foot off the left pedal, the Model T entered high gear, but only when the handbrake lever was fully forward. The car could thus cruise without the driver having to press any of the pedals. There was no separate clutch pedal.

The middle pedal was used to engage reverse gear, and the right pedal operated the transmission brake. The floor lever also controlled the parking brake, which was activated by pulling the lever all the way back. This doubled as an emergency brake.

The three pedal controls of the Model T

Although it was uncommon, the drive bands could fall out of adjustment, allowing the car to creep, particularly when cold, adding another hazard to attempting to start the car: a person cranking the engine could be forced backward while still holding the crank as the car crept forward although it was nominally in neutral. As the car utilised a wet clutch, this condition could also occur in cold weather where the thickened oil prevents the clutch discs from slipping freely. Power reached the differential through a single universal joint attached to a torque tube which drove the rear axle; some models (typically trucks, but available for cars as well) could be equipped with an optional two speed Ruckstell rear axle shifted by a floor mounted lever which provided an underdrive gear for easier hill climbing. All gears were vanadium steel running in an oil bath.

Suspension and wheels

The suspension components of a Ford Model T. The coil-spring device is an aftermarket accessory, the "Hassler shock absorber".

Model T suspension employed a transversely mounted semi-elliptical spring for each of the front and rear axles, which was a solid beam axle, not an independent suspension, which still allowed a great deal of wheel movement to cope with the dirt roads of the time.

The front axle was drop forged as a single piece of vanadium steel. Ford twisted many axles eight times and sent them to dealers to be put on display to demonstrate its superiority. The Model T did not have a modern service brake. The right foot pedal applied a band around a drum in the transmission, thus stopping the rear wheels from turning. The previously mentioned parking brake lever operated band brakes on the outside of the rear brake drums.

Wheels were wooden artillery wheels, with steel welded-spoke wheels available in 1926 and 1927.

Tires were pneumatic clincher type, 30 in (76 cm) in diameter, 3.5 in (8.9 cm) wide in the rear, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide in the front. Clinchers needed much higher pressure than today's tires, typically 60 psi (4.1 bar), to prevent them from leaving the rim at speed. Horseshoe nails on the roads, together with the high pressure, made flat tires a common problem.

Balloon tires became available in 1925. They were 21x4.5 in (53x11.4 cm) all around. Balloon tires were closer in design to today's tires, with steel wires reinforcing the tire bead, making lower pressure possible – typically 35 psi (2.4 bar) – giving a softer ride. The old nomenclature for tire size changed from measuring the outer diameter to measuring the rim diameter so 21" (rim diameter) × 4.50 (tire width) wheels has about the same outer diameter as 30 in (76 cm) clincher tires. All tires in this time period used an inner tube to hold the pressurised air; "tubeless" tires were not generally in use until much later.

Wheelbase was 99 inches (250 cm); while standard tread width was 56 in (142 cm), 60 in (152 cm) tread could be obtained on special order, "for Southern roads".

Design changes

Early Ts had a brass radiator and headlights. The horn and numerous small parts were also brass. Many of the early cars were open-bodied touring cars and runabouts, these being cheaper to make than closed cars. Prior to the 1911 model year (when front doors were added to the touring model), US - made open cars did not have an opening door for the driver. Later models included closed cars (introduced in 1915),^[19] sedans, coupes and trucks. The chassis was available so trucks could be built to suit. Ford also developed some truck bodies for this chassis, designated the Model TT. The headlights were originally acetylene lamps made of brass (commonly using Prest-O-Lite tanks),^[13] but eventually the car gained electric lights after 1910, initially powered from the magneto until the electrical system was upgraded to a battery, generator and starter motor, when lighting power was switched to the battery source.

The Model T production system, the epitome of Fordism, is famous for representing the rigidity of early mass production systems that were wildly successful at achieving efficiency but that could accommodate changes in product design only with great difficulty and resistance. The story is more complicated;^[20] there were few major, publicly visible changes throughout the life of the model, but there were many smaller changes. Most were driven by design for manufacturability considerations, but styling and new features also played more of a role than commonly realised. In fact, one of the problems for the company regarding design changes was the T's reputation for not changing and being "already correct", which Henry Ford enjoyed and which was a selling point for many customers, which made it risky to admit any changes actually were happening.^[21] (The idea of simply refining a design without making radical visible changes would resurface, and score even greater production success, with the VW Type 1.)^[22]

Colors

By 1918, half of all the cars in the US were Model T’s. However it was a monolithic bloc; Ford wrote in his autobiography that he told his management team in 1909 that in the future “Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so long as it is black”.^[23]

However, in the first years of production from 1908 to 1914, the Model T was not available in black^[24] but rather only grey, green, blue, and red. Green was available for the touring cars, town cars, coupes, and Landaulets. Grey was only available for the town cars, and red only for the touring cars. By 1912, all cars were being painted midnight blue with black fenders. It was only in 1914 that the "any color as long as it is black" policy was finally implemented. It is often stated that Ford suggested the use of black from 1914 to 1926 due to the cheap cost and durability of black paint. During the lifetime production of the Model T, over 30 different types of black paint were used on various parts of the car.^[25] These were formulated to satisfy the different means of applying the paint to the various parts, and had distinct drying times, depending on the part, paint, and method of drying.

Diverse applications in a world not yet widely paved, motorised, or electrified

When the Model T was designed and introduced, the infrastructure of the world was quite different from today's. Pavement was a rarity except for sidewalks and a few big-city streets. (The sense of the term "pavement" as equivalent with "sidewalk" comes from that era, when streets and roads were generally dirt (mud during rainy periods) and sidewalks were a paved way to walk down them without getting dirty. In fact, this was a motive for segregating foot traffic from carriage traffic long before the speed of automobiles provided another motive.) Agriculture was the occupation of many people. Power tools were scarce outside factories, as were any power sources to run them; electrification, like pavement, was found usually only in larger towns and cities. Rural electrification and motorised mechanisation were embryonic in North America and Europe, and nonexistent elsewhere.

Henry Ford oversaw the requirements and design of the Model T based on the realities of that world. Consequently, the Model T was (intentionally) almost as much a tractor and stationary engine as it was an automobile, that is, a vehicle dedicated solely to road use. It has always been well regarded for its all-terrain abilities and ruggedness. It could travel a rocky, muddy farm lane, ford a shallow stream, climb a steep hill, and be parked on the other side to have one of its wheels removed and a pulley fastened to the hub for a flat belt to drive a bucksaw, thresher, silo blower, conveyor for filling corn cribs or haylofts, baler, water pump (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), electrical generator, and countless other applications. One unique application of the Model T was shown in the October 1922 issue of Fordson Farmer magazine. It showed a minister who had transformed his Model T in to a mobile church, complete with small organ^[26] .

During this era, entire automobiles (including thousands of Model Ts) were even hacked apart by their industrious owners and reconfigured into custom machinery permanently dedicated to a purpose, such as homemade tractors, ice saws,^[27] or many others. Dozens of aftermarket companies sold prefab kits to facilitate the T's conversion from car to tractor.^[28] In a world mostly without mechanised cultivators, Model Ts filled a vacuum. Row-crop tractors such as the Farmall did not become widespread until the 1930s. Like many popular car engines of the era, the Model T engine was also used on home-built aircraft (such as the Pietenpol Sky Scout) and motorboats.

Also, many Model Ts were converted into vehicles which could travel across heavy snows with kits on the rear wheels and skis where the front wheels were located. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversion of cars and small trucks was Snowflyers. These vehicles were extremely popular in the northern reaches of Canada where factories were set up to produce them. ^[29]

Production

Mass production

The knowledge and skills needed by a factory worker were reduced to 84 areas. When introduced, the T used the building methods typical at the time, assembly by hand, and production was small. Ford's Piquette plant could not keep up with demand for the Model T, and only 11 cars were built there during the first full month of production. More and more machines were used to reduce the complexity within the 84 defined areas. In 1910, after assembling nearly 12,000 Model Ts, Henry Ford moved the company to the new Highland Park complex.

Ford assembly line, 1913

As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, reducing production time by a factor of eight (requiring 12.5 hours before, 93 minutes afterwards), while using less manpower.^[30] By 1914, the assembly process for the Model T had been so streamlined it took only 93 minutes to assemble a car. That year Ford produced more cars than all other automakers combined. The Model T was a great commercial success, and by the time Henry made his 10 millionth car, 50 percent of all cars in the world were Fords. It was so successful that Ford did not purchase any advertising between 1917 and 1923; more than 15 million Model Ts were manufactured, reaching a rate of 9,000 to 10,000 cars a day in 1925, or 2 million annually,^[31][32][33] more than any other model of its day, at a price of just $240. Model T production was finally surpassed by the Volkswagen Beetle on February 17, 1972.

Henry Ford's ideological approach to Model T design was one of getting it right and then keeping it the same; he believed the Model T was all the car a person would, or could, ever need. As other companies offered comfort and styling advantages, at competitive prices, the Model T lost market share. Design changes were not as few as the public perceived, but the idea of an unchanging model was kept intact. Eventually, on May 26, 1927, Ford Motor Company ceased production and began the changeovers required to produce the Model A.^[34]

Model T engines continued to be produced until August 4, 1941. Almost 170,000 were built after car production stopped, as replacement engines were required to service already produced vehicles. Racers and enthusiasts, forerunners of modern hot rodders, used the Model T's block to build popular and cheap racing engines, including Cragar, Navarro, and famously the Frontenacs ("Fronty Fords") of the Chevrolet brothers, among many others.

The Model T employed some advanced technology, for example, its use of vanadium steel alloy. Its durability was phenomenal, and many Model Ts and their parts remain in running order nearly a century later. Although Henry Ford resisted some kinds of change, he always championed the advancement of materials engineering, and often mechanical engineering and industrial engineering.

In 2002, Ford built a final batch of six Model Ts as part of their 2003 centenary celebrations. These cars were assembled from remaining new components and other parts produced from the original drawings. The last of the six was used for publicity purposes in the UK.

Although Ford no longer manufacture parts for the Model T, many parts are still manufactured through private companies as replicas to service the thousands of Model T's still in operation today.

Price

The standard 4-seat open tourer of 1909 cost $850^[35] (equivalent to $20,709 today), when competing cars often cost $2,000–$3,000 (equivalent to $48,726–$73,089 today);^{[citation needed]} in 1913, the price dropped to $550 (equivalent to $12,181 today), and $440 in 1915 (equivalent to $9,521 today). Sales were 69,762 in 1911; 170,211 in 1912; 202,667 in 1913; 308,162 in 1914; and 501,462 in 1915.^[30] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.^[30]

By the 1920s, the price had fallen to $290 (equivalent to $3,289 today) because of increasing efficiencies of assembly line technique and volume. Henry employed vertical integration of the industries needed to create his cars.

Recycling

Henry Ford used wood scraps from the production of Model T's to create charcoal. Originally named Ford Charcoal the name was changed to Kingsford Charcoal after Ford's relative E. G. Kingsford brokered the selection of the new charcoal plant site.^[36]

First global car

The Ford Model T was the first automobile built by various countries simultaneously since they were being produced in Walkerville, Canada and in Trafford Park, Greater Manchester, England starting in 1911 and were later assembled in Germany, Argentina,^[37] France, Spain, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Brazil, Mexico, and Japan.^[38] Ford made use of the knock-down kit concept almost from the beginning of the company.

The Aeroford was an English automobile manufactured in Bayswater, London, from 1920 to 1925. It was a Model T with distinct hood and grille to make it appear to be a totally different design, what later would have been called badge engineering. The Aeroford sold from £288 in 1920, dropping to £168-214 by 1925. It was available as a two-seater, four-seater, or coupé.^{[39][page needed]}

Advertising, marketing, and packaging

Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and advertisements about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. As independent dealers, the franchises grew rich and publicised not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed – several years posted 100% gains on the previous year.

Sales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped to $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000.^[40]

Car clubs

Cars built before 1919 are classed as veteran cars and later models as vintage cars. Today, four main clubs exist to support the preservation and restoration of these cars: The Model T Ford Club International, the Model T Ford Club of America and the combined clubs of Australia. With many chapters of clubs around the world, the Model T Ford Club of Victoria has a membership with a considerable number of uniquely Australian cars. (Australia produced its own car bodies and therefore many differences occurred between the Australian bodied tourers and the US/Canadian cars). In the UK, the Model T Ford Register of Great Britain celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010. Many steel Model T parts are still manufactured today, and even fiberglass replicas of their distinctive bodies are produced, which are popular for T-bucket style hot rods (as immortalised in the Jan and Dean surf music song "Bucket T," which was later recorded by The Who).

In popular media

• John Steinbeck's Cannery Row contains a passage about the Model T:

"Someone should write an erudite essay on the moral, physical, and esthetic effect of the Model T Ford on the American nation. Two generations of Americans knew more about the Ford coil than about the clitoris, about the planetary system of gears than the solar system of stars. With the Model T, part of the concept of private property disappeared. Pliers ceased to be privately owned and a tire iron belonged to the last man who had picked it up. Most of the babies of the period were conceived in Model T Fords and not a few were born in them. The theory of the Anglo Saxon home became so warped that it never quite recovered."

• In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, where Henry Ford is regarded as a messianic figure, graveyard crosses have been topped off and become T's.

• Lizzie a character of the Cars franchise is an Ford Model T.

See also

• New Zealand RM class (Model T Ford) – a 1925 experimental railcar based on a Model T body

Notes

1. ^ John Steele Gordon "10 Moments That Made American Business," American Heritage, February/March 2007.
2. ^ Ford also attempted a buy on time program to aid sales, resembling that of the German Kdf-Wagen (forerunner of the Volkswagen Type 1). Ford's plan was not a success, either.
3. ^ "Joyrides: Car of the Century/ Ford's Model T, of course". http://info.detnews.com/joyrides/story/index.cfm?id=75. 
4. ^ "Chronicle of 1908". Library.thinkquest.org. http://library.thinkquest.org/27629/chronicle/1908.html. Retrieved 2010-11-15. 
5. ^ "Henry Ford And The Model T". John Wiley & Sons. http://www.wiley.com/legacy/products/subject/business/forbes/ford.html. Retrieved February 3, 2011. 
6. ^ Early Ford – models from the years 1903–1908; p. 5.
7. ^ Ford 1922, My life and work (1922), p. 73.
8. ^ Lacey 1986.
9. ^ Reynolds 2009
10. ^ "University students compete to create 21st century Model T". Media.ford.com. http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=28540. Retrieved January 17, 2011. 
11. ^ "History Lesson: Hungary Celebrates the Ford Model T". Edmunds.com. http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId=109442. Retrieved 2008-02-29. 
12. ^ Wik 1972.
13. ^ ^{a b} Clymer 1950, p. 100.
14. ^ "Model T Facts". Media.ford.com accessdate=November 15, 2010. http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=858. 
15. ^ English, Andrew (July 25, 2008). "Ford Model T reaches 100". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/main.jhtml?xml=/motoring/2008/07/25/mnmodel125.xml. Retrieved August 8, 2008. 
16. ^ "Ethanol: Introduction". Journey to Forever. http://journeytoforever.org/ethanol.html#ethintro. Retrieved August 8, 2008. 
17. ^ "Model T Ford Electrical System". modeltcentral.com. http://www.modeltcentral.com/Model-T-Ford-Electrical-Specifications.html. Retrieved October 15, 2009. 
18. ^ 1926 "Model T Ford Club of America". http://www.mtfca.com/encyclo/1926.htm 1926. 
19. ^ Clymer 1950, p. 37.
20. ^ Hounshell 1984, pp. 273–278.
21. ^ Hounshell 1984, p. 275.
22. ^ It would also apply to the Porsche 911.
23. ^ Ford 1922, p. 72.
24. ^ Model T: The car that changed the world”)
25. ^ McCalley 1994
26. ^ Casey, Robert (2008). The Model T A Centennial History. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 148. ISBN 978-0-8018-8850-2. 
27. ^ "1926 Ford Model T Ice Saw". http://www.ohtm.org/eng_ticesaw.html.  Used for harvesting winter ice from ponds in Maine.
28. ^ Pripps & Morland 1993, p. 28
29. ^ "Snowflyers Replace Dogs in Frozen North" Popular Mechanics, December 1934
30. ^ ^{a b c} Georgano 1985
31. ^ Martin W. Sandler, Driving Around the USA: Automobiles in American Life, Oxford University Press, 2003, p.21
32. ^ Douglas Brinkley, Wheels for the world: Henry Ford, his company, and a century of progress, 1903–2003, Viking, 2003, p.475
33. ^ My forty years with Ford, Charles E. Sorensen, David Lanier Lewis, Samuel T. Williamson, Wayne State University Press, p.4
34. ^ detnews.com "Michigan History". http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=189&category=business detnews.com. 
35. ^ Ward 1974, p. 1562.
36. ^ History Page Kingsford products^{[dead link]}
37. ^ www.auto-historia.com History of Ford Motors Argentina – Retrieved on 19 November 2008.
38. ^ Celebrating the Ford Model T, only 100 years young!, (in Spanish) accessed 22 September 2008.
39. ^ David Culshaw & Peter Horrobin: The Complete Catalogue of British Cars 1895–1975. Veloce Publishing plc. Dorchester (1999). ISBN 1-874105-93-6
40. ^ Lewis 1976, pp. 41–59.

Bibliography

• Clymer, Floyd (1950). Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877–1925. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill. LCCN 50010680. 
• Ford, Henry; Crowther, Samuel (1922), My Life and Work, Garden City, New York, USA: Garden City Publishing Company, Inc, http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213. Various republications, including ISBN 9781406500189. Original is public domain in U.S. Also available at Google Books. 
• Georgano, G. N. (1985). Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. London, UK: Grange-Universal. 
• Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN 83-016269 .
• Lacey, Robert (1986). Ford: The Men and the Machine. Boston, MA, USA: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0316511667. 
• Lewis, David (1976). The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company. Detroit, MI, USA: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 9780814315538. 
• McCalley, Bruce W. (1994). Model T Ford: The Car That Changed the World. Iola, WI, USA: Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87341-293-1. 
• Pripps, Robert N.; Morland, Andrew (photographer) (1993). Farmall Tractors: History of International McCormick-Deering Farmall Tractors. Farm Tractor Color History Series. Osceola, WI, USA: MBI. ISBN 978-0-87938-763-1. 
• Reynolds, David (2009). America, Empire of Liberty: A New History of the United States. Basic Books. ISBN 978-1846140563. 
• Ward, Ian (ed) (1974). The World of Automobiles. 13. London, UK: Orbis. 
• Wik, Reynold M. (1972). Henry Ford and Grass-Roots America. Ann Arbor, MI, USA: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472972005. 

External links

• "My 1925 Ford Model T - How to Start & How to Drive" - Demonstration video on YouTube
• Model T Ford Club of America (USA)
• Model T Ford Club International
• Source of Model T Ford information (Canada)
• Compilation of video clips of the Model T Ford
• Ford Model T at the Internet Movie Cars Database
• Model T Specification Sheet
• Collection of archival Model T Ford photos & information on tools and parts
• A detailed explanation and interactive animation of the Model T Ford Transmission
• Ford.com – Model T facts
• ModelTFord.com – Identification Chart for Model T Body Styles
• Toronto's forgotten Model T factory
• [1] contains various videos of Model T crank-starting, road use, and field use. They can be found via search.