Sino-African relations

People's Republic of China-Africa

A map indicating trading routes used around the 1st century CE centred on the Silk Road.

Sino-African relations refers to the historical, political, economic, military, social and cultural connections between China and the African continent.

Little is known about ancient relations though there is some evidence for early trade operations. Highlights of medieval contacts were the 14th century journey of Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan scholar and traveler, to parts of China^[1] and the Ming Dynasty voyages of Chinese admiral Zheng He and his fleet, which rounded the coast of Somalia and followed the coast down to the Mozambique Channel.^[2]

Modern political and economic relations commenced in the Mao era. Starting the beginning of the 21st century, the modern state of People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger economic ties with African nations. As of August 2007, there are more than 750,000 Chinese nationals working in different African countries.^[3] Trade between China and Africa has increased 700% during the 1990s.^[4] China is currently Africa's largest trading partner before the E.U. and the United States.^[5] The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) was established in October 2000 as an official forum to strengthen the relationship. However, a few Western countries—such as the United Kingdom and the United States—have raised concerns over the political, economic and military roles China is playing in the African continent.

The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs emphasises China's development aid to Africa, while also stating that China and Africa are making "joint efforts to maintain the lawful rights of developing countries and push forward the creation of a new, fair and just political and economic order in the world".^[6]

Historical relations

A giraffe brought from Somalia in the twelfth year of Yongle (AD 1415).

China and Africa have a history of trade relations, sometimes through third parties, dating back as far as 202 BC and AD 220.^[7] The first mention of Africa in Chinese sources was in the Yu-yang-tsa-tsu by Tuan Ch'eng-shih (died 863), a compendium of general knowledge where he wrote about the land of Po-pa-li (referring to Somalia).

Archaeological excavations at Mogadishu, Somalia and Kilwa, Tanzania have recovered many coins from China. The majority of the Chinese coins date to the Song Dynasty, although the Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty are also represented, according to Richard Pankhurst.^[8] In 1226 Chao Jukua, commissioner of foreign trade at Quanzhou in the Fujian province of China, completed his Chu-fan-chih (Description of Barbarous Peoples) which discusses Zanzibar (Ts'ong-pa) and Somalia (Pi-P'a-Lo).^[9]

In the 14th century, Moroccan traveler and scholar Ibn Battuta made a long journey to Africa and Asia. He reached China in April 1345 after a stay in India before serving as an envoy of Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq of the Indian Tughlaq dynasty to China.^[1][10] He wrote:^[11]

China is the safest, best regulated of countries for a traveler. A man may go by himself on a nine-month journey, carrying with him a large sum of money, without any fear. Silk is used for clothing even by poor monks and beggars. Its porcelains are the finest of all makes of pottery and its hens are bigger than geese in our country.

The Ming Dynasty voyages of Chinese admiral Zheng He and his fleet, which rounded the coast of Somalia and followed the coast down to the Mozambique Channel. The goal of those expeditions was to spread Chinese culture and signal Chinese strength. Zheng brought gifts and granted titles from the Ming emperor to the local rulers, with the aim of establishing a large number of tributary states.^[2] In October 1415, Chinese explorer and admiral Zheng He reached the eastern coast of Africa and sent the first of two giraffes as gifts to the Chinese Yongle Emperor.^[12]

There are some other accounts that mention Chinese ships sinking near Lamu Island in Kenya in 1415. Survivors are said to have settled in the island and married local women.^[13][14]

Archaeologists have found Chinese porcelains made during the Tang dynasty (618-907) in Kenyan villages; however, these were believed to have been brought over by Zheng He during his 15th century ocean voyages.^[15] On Lamu Island off the Kenyan coast, local oral tradition maintains that 20 shipwrecked Chinese sailors, possibly part of Zheng's fleet, washed up on shore there hundreds of years ago. Given permission to settle by local tribes after having killed a dangerous python, they converted to Islam and married local women. Now, they are believed to have just six descendants left there; in 2002, DNA tests conducted on one of the women confirmed that she was of Chinese descent. Her daughter, Mwamaka Sharifu, later received a PRC government scholarship to study traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in China.^[16][17]

National Geographic also published an article by Frank Viviano in July 2005, he visited Pate Island during the time he stayed on Lamu, ceramic fragments had been found around Lamu which the administrative officer of the local Swahili history museum claimed were of Chinese origin, specifically from Zheng He's vorage to east Africa. The eyes of the Pate people resembled Chinese and Famao and Wei were some of the names among them which were speculated to be of Chinese origin. Their ancestors were said to be from indigenous women who intermarried with Chinese Ming sailors when they were shipwrecked. Two places on Pate were called "Old Shanga", and "New Shanga", which the Chinese sailors had named. A local guide who claimed descent from the Chinese showed Frank a graveyard made out of coral on the island, indicating that they were the graves of the Chinese sailors, which the author described as "virtually identical", to Chinese Ming dynasty tombs, complete with "half-moon domes" and "terraced entries".^[18]

According to Melanie Yap and Daniel Leong Man in their book "Colour, Confusions and Concessions: the History of Chinese in South Africa", Chu Ssu-pen, a Chinese mapmaker, in 1320 had southern Africa drawn on one of his maps. Ceramics found in Zimbabwe and South Africa dated back to Song dynasty China. Some tribes to Cape Town's north claimed descent from Chinese sailors during the 1200s, their physical appearance is similar to Chinese with paler skin and a Mandarin sounding tonal language. Their name for themselves is "abandoned people", Awatwa in their language.^[19]

Contemporary relations

Mao-era poster with the slogan "Chairman Mao is the great savior of the revolutionary peoples of the world."

The establishment of modern Sino-African relations dates back to the late 1950s when China signed the first official bilateral trade agreement with Algeria, Egypt, Guinea, Morocco and Sudan. Zhou Enlai made a ten-country tour to Africa between December 1963 and January 1964. Relations at that time were often reflective of China's foreign policy in general: China "began to cultivate ties and offer[...] economic, technical and military support to African countries and liberation movements in an effort to encourage wars of national liberation and revolution as part of an international united front against both superpower".^[20]

Diplomacy

Members of FOCAC

Early modern bilateral relations were mainly affected by the Cold War and the communist ideology. China originally had close ties with the anti-apartheid and liberation movement, African National Congress (ANC), in South Africa, but as China's relations with the Soviet Union worsened and the ANC moved closer to the Soviet Union, China shifted away from the ANC towards the Pan-Africanist Congress.^[21] China adopted several principles, among them supporting the independence of African countries while investing in infrastructure projects. During the Cold War a few smaller nations entered in alliances with China, such as Burundi under Michel Micombero.

The question of Taiwan has been a key political issue for the People's Republic of China (PRC). In 1971, the support of African nations was crucial in the PRC joining the United Nations (UN), taking over the seat of the ROC on Taiwan.^[22] However, while many African countries such as Algeria, Egypt and Zambia have stressed their support to "one-China policy" others such Swaziland, Burkina Faso, The Gambia and São Tomé and Príncipe are maintaining relations with Taipei.^[23] For the quest of a permanent UN seat for Africa, Nigeria, the largest African country, relies on Chinese support while Egypt looks to U.S. backing.^[24]

Since 1997, around 40 African heads of state have visited the PRC.^[25] The ministerial meeting, Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), held in Beijing in October 2000 was the first collective dialogue between the PRC and African nations.

Trade

Main article: Involvement of the People's Republic of China in Africa

In 1999, the total Sino-African trade volume was US$6.5 billion.^[26] However, by 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the United States, which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. The PRC also passed the traditional African economic partner and former colonial power France, which had trade worth US$47 billion.^[5] There are an estimated 800 Chinese corporations doing business in Africa, most of which are private companies investing in the infrastructure, energy and banking sectors.^[27] Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years)^[28] have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans.^[27] Since 2000, more than $10bn in debt owed by African nations to the PRC has been canceled.^[28] Even though Africa has gained from commodity exports to China, Chinese exports to Africa as well as Chinese business practices isn't helping so much, says Mohamed Gueye. Problem, what problem?

One-third of China's oilsupplies comes from the African continent, mainly from Angola.^[29] Investments of Chinese companies in the energy sector have reached high levels in recent years.^[when?] In some cases, like in Nigeria and Angola, oil and gas exploration and production deals reached more than $2 billion.^{[clarification needed][30][31]} Many of those investments are mixed packages of aid and loan in exchange for infrastructure building and trade deals.

In agriculture, Benin and the Sahel countries of Burkina Faso and Mali supply up to 20% of China's cotton needs. While Côte d'Ivoire supplies China with cocoa,^[32] large^[quantify] shipments of coffee are imported from Kenya. As for fish products, Namibia remains one of the main^[quantify] providers.^[27]

Health care

China has been engaged in a kind of "health diplomacy" towards Africa since the 1960s. Health care development and medical assistance have been one of the main successful areas of cooperation. Between the early 1960s and 2005, more than 15,000 Chinese doctors have been sent to Africa to help treat different cases^{[clarification needed]} in more than 47 countries.^[33] The medical teams, known as yiliaodui, have treated more than 170 million patients during the same period.^[34]

In 2001, the member nations of G8, formed the United Nations-backed Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria with an initial budget of $10 billion. In 2007, another additional $1.1 billion was approved in Kunming, China, of which 66% was dedicated to Africa.^[35] In September of the same year, China promised the Democratic Republic of the Congo to build 31 hospital units and other 145 smaller health care centers, a project due to be completed in March 2010.^[36][37]

Military

Military cooperation goes back to the Cold War period when China was keen to help African liberation movements. Apart from some traditional allies such as Somalia, Uganda and Ethiopia, China also had military ties with non-aligned countries such as Egypt. Military equipment worth $142 million was sold to African countries between 1955 and 1977.^[28] Two decades after the collapse of the Soviet Union, military relations are now^{[dated info]} based on business interests rather than ideology.

There is no Chinese military presence in Africa other than that used in peacekeeping.^{[citation needed]} In 2004, China deployed around 1,500 soldiers under the UN umbrella, dispatched between Liberia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.^[28] China is also present via its military attachés; as of 2007, it has 14 attachés in 14 different African countries while there are 18 African countries who maintain their attachés in Beijing.^[38] Apart from peacemaking, China provides military training and equipment to a few countries, though this does not require military forces to be deployed.

Due to the low prices of Chinese-made weaponry and military equipment, an increasing number of African countries shifted their source of supply from traditional providers such as Russia to China.^[39] However, the selling of arms to some states accused by Western countries of war crimes, such as Sudan, have prompted criticism in the West (see Criticism section below).^[40]

Culture

Foreign students at Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan

Africa is a host of three Chinese cultural centers. The first overseas Chinese center was opened in Mauritius in 1988.^[41] Two other followed in Egypt and Benin. The Confucius Institute, which focuses on the promotion of the Chinese language and culture, has 20 centers distributed around 13 African countries.^[42]

Historically, little is known about early African immigration to China. Due to recent developments in relations,^[ambiguous] many^[quantify] have been relocating for better opportunities. Places dubbed 'Little Africa' and 'Chocolate city' are increasingly receiving new immigrants, mostly Nigerians. Most of the African immigrants are concentrated in the area of Guangzhou with an estimated number of 20,000.^[43] It is estimated that there are around 10,000 illegal African immigrants in China and police crackdowns have intensified since early 2009.^[44]

In contrast, early Chinese immigration to the African continent is slightly better documented. In 1724, a few Chinese convicts were brought as labourers to South Africa from the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) by the colonial Dutch Empire. In the early 19th century, another wave of immigrants came to South Africa as workers brought by the British to work in agriculture, infrastructure building and mining.^[45] In recent years, there has been an increasing presence of Chinese in Africa. Estimates vary by source though Xinhua, China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa.^[45] The number of Chinese illegal immigrants remains unknown.

Criticism

Scholars have argued that the PRC's supporting dictatorships in Africa is counter-productive both for long-term Chinese policy towards Africa, and to the African people. The PRC's involvement currently benefits primarily the elites, an opportunistic practice for which it has been criticized by humanitarians and others.

The Zimbabwean example is relevant. Relations between China and Robert Mugabe's regime in Zimbabwe have also been the focus of criticism by a few Western countries. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with jet fighters, vehicles and other military equipment.^[46] China declared in 2007 that it was dropping all kinds of assistance and limiting assistance to humanitarian aid.^[47] In July 2008, the Chinese diplomacy asked Mugabe "to behave" though critics see that as a way for China to protect its own interests in this country should a regime changes.^[48]

Neo-colonialism

China's role in Africa has sparked much criticism, mainly by Western countries who accuse it of "neo-colonialism".^[49][50] As a response to such criticism, China issued the Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardise Enterprises' Overseas Investment, a charter and guide of conduct to Chinese companies operating abroad.^[51] Other criticism include the flooding of the African markets with low-cost Chinese-made products, thus harming the growth and the survival of local industries and businesses.^[52]

Human rights

Human rights organizations, particularly in the run-up to the 2008 Summer Olympics, criticized China for its supportive relationship with the government of Sudan, which is accused of mass killings in Darfur.^[53][54] China is Sudan's largest economic partner, with a 40% share in their oil,^[55] and also sells Sudan small arms.^[56] China has threatened to veto UN Security Council actions to combat the Darfur crisis,^[57] and has argued that, "As the Darfur issue is not an internal affair of China, nor was it caused by China, to link the two together is utterly unreasonable, irresponsible and unfair."^[58]

Events

Banner for the 2006 Forum on China-Africa Cooperation summit in Beijing

• 1988, December 24

a quarrel erupted at a Christmas Eve party at the campus of Hohai University in Nanjing about correct identification between one of two African students and a Chinese security guard, who had ordered the Africans to register their two Chinese women guests. That led to a brawl between the African and Chinese students on the campus which lasted till the morning, leaving 13 students injured. (See Nanjing anti-African protests)

• 2000's

In the early to mid 2000s, Chinese investors and state agencies spent billions building roads in Kenya, a hydroelectric dam in Ghana and a mobile phone network in Ethiopia. Nigeria, where China controls 45% of all offshore oil reserves,^[59] has a Mandarin-language newspaper (West African United Business Daily) serving 50,000 readers — a community greater in number than the British ever were, even at the height of British colonial rule in Nigeria.^[60] In this exchange, China is buying the rights to natural resources — oil, precious minerals — to feed its expanding economy and new markets for its burgeoning enterprises. In 2005, this two-way trade had increased to $42 billion.^[61]

• 2006, August 6

Chad changed its recognition of the Republic of China to the PRC.^[62]

• 2006, November 3

China hosted a Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Summit in Beijing with the leaders of 48 African countries designed to cement its economic and political influence in the continent. Over 2000 business were being negotiated at the time. At the opening of the summit, President Hu Jintao stated China would offer $3 billion in preferential loans and $2 billion in export credits over the next three years. China announced that it would double its foreign aid though it did not offer details.^[61]

• 2007, February

President Hu Jintao completed an eight-country tour of Africa.^[63] The countries visited were Cameroon, Liberia, Sudan, Zambia, Namibia, South Africa, Mozambique and the Seychelles.^[64]

Comparison

Category	Africa	People's Republic of China
Flag
Population	922,011,000[65] (2005, 2nd)	1,321,851,888
Area	30,221,532 km²	11,668,598.7 km²
	9,640,821 sq mi	3,704,427 sq mi
Population density	30.51/km² ≈ 80/sq mi	140/km²
		363/sq mi
Largest cities	List of most populous cities in Africa	Shanghai
Population of largest cities		18,580,000
Languages	An estimated 2,000 languages.[66] Main article: Languages of Africa	Main article: Languages of China
Official languages	See also: List of official languages by state, List of official languages by state#C, and List of countries by military expenditures
Main religions	Christianity 45% Islam 40.6% Other 14.4% Main article: Religion in Africa	non-religious 69% Buddhism 4.5% Taoism7.5% Christianity 3% Islam 3% Main article: Religion in China
Ethnic groups	List of African ethnic groups	Han Chinese Tibetan Turk Mongol
nominal GDP in trillions of US Dollars	2.200	5.745
nominal GDP per capita in US Dollars	1,968	4,283
Foreign exchange reserves	-	1,950,000 millions of USD
Military expenditures in billions of $		70

See also

	Africa portal
	China portal

• List of People's Republic of China diplomatic missions
• China in Africa
• Caribbean–People's Republic of China relations
• Sino-Pacific relations

References

• Freeman-Grenville, G.P.S., ed (1975). The East African Coast. Select Documents form the first to the earlier nineteenth century. London: Rex Collings 
• Muekalia, D.J. (2004). "Africa and China's strategic partnership". African Security Review 13 (1): pp. 5–11 
• Snow, Philip (1988). The Star Raft: China's encounter with Africa. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. ISBN 1-555-84184-8 
• Taylor, I. (1998). "China's foreign policy towards Africa in the 1990s". Journal of Modern African Studies 36 (3): pp. 443–460. doi:10.1017/S0022278X98002857 

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Gin Ooi, Keat (2004) [2004]. Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. pp. 626. ISBN 1-5760-7770-5. 
2. ^ ^{a b} CCTV (2002-12-24). "Zheng He's Voyages". http://www.cctv.com/english/TouchChina/GloryofChineseCivilization/HistoricalCelebrities/MilitaryLeaders/20021224/100353.html. Retrieved 2006-08-13. 
3. ^ French, Howard W.; Polgreen, Lydia (2007-08-18). "Entrepreneurs From China Flourish in Africa". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/18/world/africa/18malawi.html?em&ex=1187582400&en=7b8806ea0f69e210&ei=5087%0A. Retrieved 2007-08-19. 
4. ^ China’s trade safari in Africa - Le Monde Diplomatique, May 2005
5. ^ ^{a b} "China boosts African economies, offering a 'second opportunity’". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/. Retrieved 2009-03-14. ^{[dead link]}
6. ^ "China-Africa Relations", Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, April 25, 2002
7. ^ Snow 1988, p 2
8. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1961). An Introduction to the Economic History of Ethiopia. London: Lalibela House. ASIN B000J1GFHC. , p. 268
9. ^ Freeman-Grenville 1975
10. ^ "Ibn Battuta's Trip: Part Nine - Malaysia and China (1345 - 1346)". http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/ibn_battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Nine.html. Retrieved 2009-03-19. ^{[dead link]}
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12. ^ Snow 1998, p. 23
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46. ^ Beresford, David (2008-04-18). "Chinese ship carries arms cargo to Mugabe regime". guardian.co.uk (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/apr/18/china.armstrade. Retrieved 2009-03-14. 
47. ^ Spencer, Richard (2007-08-31). "China is to withdraw backing for Mugabe". telegraph.co.uk (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1561824/China-is-to-withdraw-backing-for-Mugabe.html. Retrieved 2009-03-14. 
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Further reading

• Alden, Chris (2007). China in Africa: Partner, Competitor or Hegemon?. Zed Books. ISBN 1842778641 
• Ian Taylor, China and Africa: Engagement and Compromise. London: Routledge, 2006 ISBN 0415397405.
• Taylor, Ian (2009). China's New Role in Africa. Boulder: Zed Books. ISBN 1588266362 
• Shaun Breslin and Ian Taylor, Explaining the Rise of 'Human Rights' in Analyses of Sino-African Relations, Review of African Political Economy, no. 115, 2008, pp. 59–71.
• Scarlett Cornelissen and Ian Taylor, The Political Economy of Chinese and Japanese Linkages with Africa: A Comparative Perspective, Pacific Review, vol. 13, no. 4, 2000, pp. 615–633.
• Wyatt, Don J. (2009). The Blacks of Premodern China. Encounters with Asia. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812241932. http://books.google.com/books?id=UMIKjFQB98MC&pg=PA102 

External links

Academic research

• The Balancing Act of China’s Africa Policy - (Wenping, He) Institute of West-Asian and African Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. China Security Vol. 3 No. 3 Summer 2007
• The Forest for the Trees: Trade, Investment and the China-in-Africa Discourse - (Sautman, Barry) Hong Kong University of Science & Technology / (Hairong, Yan) University of Hong Kong May 28, 2007
• Zhiqun Zhu (2007). "China's New Diplomacy in Africa (post 1990)". http://sloc.cafe24.com/upload/publication01/2007B06.pdf 

Media special reports

• Africa-China Trade - Financial Times
• Africa-China - Pambazuka.org, an African social justice watchdog

Media articles

• The summit in Beijing, Stephen Marks for Pambazuka.org - December 14, 2006
• China in Africa: Developing ties, BBC News - November 29, 2007

Institutional links

• Africa’s Burgeoning Ties with China - Finance & Development, a quarterly magazine of the International Monetary Fund, March 2008, Volume 45, Number 1
• The Rise of China and India - What's in it for Africa, Goldstein et al., for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, May 2006

Official links

• China-Africa Cooperation Forum
• China's African Policy - Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the People's Republic of China
• "China-Africa Relations", Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, April 25, 2002
• Fairly looking upon Sino-African relations, People's Daily - May 16, 2006
• "Chinese FM calls for strengthening of new Sino-African strategic partnership", Xinhua, January 11, 2010