Sino-Persian relations

Iran-China relations

Iran	China

Sino-Persian relations (Chinese: 中伊关系, Pinyin: Zhōng-Yī guānxì), or Sino-Iranian relations, refers to the historic diplomatic, cultural and economic relations between the cultures of China proper and Greater Iran, dating back to ancient times. The ancient Parthians and Sassanid empires (occupying much of present Iran and Central Asia) had various contacts with the Han and Tang Dynasty empires occupying is now the People's Republic of China. The two lands were further connected via the Silk Road.

Relations during the Parthian era

The 138–126 BCE travels of Zhang Qian to the West, Mogao Caves, 618–712 CE mural.

The Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, which he equates to those of Dayuan (in Ferghana) and Daxia (in Bactria).

"Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi (in Transoxonia). The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania)." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China, Central Asia, and Parthia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE: "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members… In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).

The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies, starting around 110 BC: "When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom… When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them… The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Parthians also played a role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism from Central Asia to China. An Shih Kao, a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist missionary, went to the Chinese capital Luoyang in 148 CE where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

Relations during the Sassanid era

Sassanid influence reached beyond their own borders. In this depiction from Qizil, Tarim Basin China, The "Tocharian donors", are dressed in Sassanid style.

Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire maintained active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently travelled to China. Chinese documents record thirteen Sassanid embassies to China. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade.

When the Chinese state of Shu Han fell in 263 CE to Cao Wei.^[1] fell, some of its refugees such as nobles and troops fled west to Sasanian Persia.

According to one account, a noble called Mamgo (see Mamikonian) in Persia, was a Chinese Shu Han prince who led his military forces in escaping the invasion of Wei to Persia. After Ssu Ma Yen, who was sent by the Emperor of China to Persia demanded that Persia hand over the Prince or face war, the Sassanian Persian Emperor Shapur I appointed Mamgo as satrap of Armenia after exiling him there with his army,^[2] wanting to keep between Persia and China the solid and friendly diplomatic links they had, then claimed Mamgo's exile in Armenia constituted "certain death" in "the ends of the earth", which the Emperor of China accepted.^[3][4][5] Edward Gibbon in his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, suggested a different account, saying that Mamgo was a Scythian who was considered a Chinese subject since the Chinese Empire's rule stretched all the way to Sogdiana, according to him.^[6][7]

On various occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road, and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.

During the Liang Dynasty in China, in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang, amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Liang Shu (Liang Book).^[8]

There are record of several joint Sassanid and Chinese efforts against their common Hephtalite enemy. Following encroachments by the nomadic Turkic on states in Central Asia, we also see what looks like a collaboration between Chinese and Sassanid forces to repel the Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh also note the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of Sogdiana at the time of the Arab invasions.

Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, Pirooz, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court.^[9] Both Piroz and his son Narsieh (Chinese neh-shie) were given high titles at the Chinese court.^[9] At least in two occasions, last one possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Pirooz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne with mixed results, one possibly ending up in a short rule of Pirooz in Sistan (Sakestan) from which we have a few remaining numismatic evidence. Narsieh later attained the position of commander of the Chinese imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes.^[9] The sister of the Sassanian Prince Peroz II was married to the Chinese Emperor, who allowed Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to settle in China.^[10] The Emperor of China at this time was Emperor Gaozong of Tang.

Relations during the Islamic era

Tang sancai vase displaying Central Asian and Persian influence. 8-9th century. Guimet Museum.

After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia continued to flourish during the Islamic Golden Age and its relations with China continued. In 751, the Abbasid Caliphate which ruled Persia was in dispute with the Tang Dynasty of China for control of the Syr Darya region during the Battle of Talas. The commander of the Abbasid army was Zayid ibn Salih, a Persian, while the commanders of the Tang army were Gao Xianzhi, a Goguryo Korean, alongside Li Siye and Duan Xiushi, both Chinese. After the Abbasids won the battle, relations improved and there were no more conflicts between China and the Arabs.

During the Tang Dynasty, communities of Persian-speaking merchants, known as Bosi (波斯), formed in northwestern China's major trade centers.^[11]

Iranian girls were in demand as dancers in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancing girls were sent from Persia to China. In the Tang dynasty inns were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.^{[citation needed]} Dancers were sent as gifts, and whirl dances were often performed by Iranian girls. Some of these Iranian, central Asian, and Sogdian girls were known for having blue eyes and blonde hair.^{[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]} Blue eyed Greek and Persian girls danced in bars and clubs in China during this period.^[24]

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907-960), there are examples of Chinese emperors marrying Persian women.^[25]

The young Chinese Emperor Liu Chang of the Southern Han dynasty kept a harem, including one Persian girl he nicknamed Mei Zhu, which means "beautiful pearl"(媚珠).^[26][27] During the first year of his reign, he was not over sixteen years old when he had a taste for intercourse with Persian girls.^[28] Liu Chang was attracted to the Persian girl's dark brown skin color.

From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing mulitiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".^[29][30] Multiple women originating from the Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).^[31] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".^[32]

A large number of Central Asian and Persian soldiers, experts, and artisans were recruited by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty of China. Some of them, known as semu ("assorted officials") occupied important official posts in the Yuan state administration.^[33] One of the most famous settlers from Persia was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who is identified as an ancestor of many Chinese Hui lineages and that of Yunnan's Panthay Hui population. His most famous descendant was Zheng He, who became the Ming dynasty's most famous explorer.

Relations continued during the Ming Dynasty.

The famous Maragheh observatory in Maragheh, Iran, is also known to have had some Chinese astronomers working there alongside Islamic astronomers, and some Islamic astronomical instruments were also being used by astronomers in China.^[34] Safavid Iranian art was also partly influenced by Chinese art to an extent. Shah Abbas^{[disambiguation needed ]} had hundreds of Chinese artisans in his capital Esfahan. 300 Chinese potters produced glazed tile buildings, and hundreds of others produced metalwork, miniature paintings, calligraphy, glasswork, tile work, and pottery.^[35]

Of the Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.^[36][37]

People's Republic of China and Islamic Republic of Iran

Main article: People's Republic of China – Iran relations

Diplomatic links between China and Iran have been maintained into the 20th and 21st centuries with the formation of both the People's Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 1949 and 1979 respectively.

See also

• Foreign relations of Imperial China
• Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
• Foreign relations of Iran
• Shanghai Cooperation Organization
• An Shihkao
• Iran-Russia relations
• US-Iran relations
• Pirooz
• China-Israel relations

Notes

1. ^ HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE CLASSICAL WORLD 500 BC AD600, by John Haywood, copyright 1998 Andromeda Oxford Ltd, ISBN 0-7607-1973-X(casbound), ISBN 0-7607-1974-8(paperback), section 2.25
2. ^ Edmund Ollier (1993). Cassell's illustrated universal history (revised ed.). Oxford University: Harper & Row. p. 554. http://books.google.com/books?id=MiwAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA554&dq=mamgo+chinese+armenia&hl=en&ei=8UT0TaWYEcGt0AGUzeDrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=mamgo%20chinese%20armenia&f=false. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
3. ^ Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy (1977). The encyclopedia of military history: from 3500 BC to the present (revised ed.). Harper & Row. p. 163. ISBN 0060111399. http://books.google.com/books?id=No8YAAAAIAAJ&q=After+this+defeat,+the+remnants+of+the+Shu+Army+%E2%80%94+apparently+accompanied+by+their+families+%E2%80%94+fled+westward+through+Turkestan+to+Persia+under+the+leadership+of+a+Han+prince,+known+to+Persian+history+as+Mamgo&dq=After+this+defeat,+the+remnants+of+the+Shu+Army+%E2%80%94+apparently+accompanied+by+their+families+%E2%80%94+fled+westward+through+Turkestan+to+Persia+under+the+leadership+of+a+Han+prince,+known+to+Persian+history+as+Mamgo&hl=en&ei=QPjjTbq_H6Pr0gHn1dmvBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
4. ^ Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy (1986). The encyclopedia of military history from 3500 B.C. to the present (2, illustrated ed.). Harper & Row. p. 165. ISBN 0061812358. http://books.google.com/books?ei=bRfkTdaNCaHy0gHD8Ii4Bw&ct=result&id=I5wOCyiM-mQC&dq=After+this+defeat%2C+the+remnants+of+the+Shu+Army+%E2%80%94+apparently+accompanied+by+their+families+%E2%80%94+fled+westward+through+Turkestan+to+Persia+under+the+leadership+of+a+Han+prince%2C+known+to+Persian+history+as+Mamgo&q=mamgo. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
5. ^ Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy, HarperCollins (Firm) (1993). The Harper encyclopedia of military history: from 3500 BC to the present (4, illustrated ed.). HarperCollins. p. 174. ISBN 0062700561. http://books.google.com/books?ei=dBfkTb-yOsLi0QGC-vCeBw&ct=result&id=fikOAQAAMAAJ&dq=After+this+defeat%2C+the+remnants+of+the+Shu+Army+%E2%80%94+apparently+accompanied+by+their+families+%E2%80%94+fled+westward+through+Turkestan+to+Persia+under+the+leadership+of+a+Han+prince%2C+known+to+Persian+history+as+Mamgo&q=mamgo. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
6. ^ Edward Gibbon (1998). Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (illustrated ed.). Wordsworth Editions. p. 217. ISBN 1853264997. http://books.google.com/books?id=yvlYUpqe-JMC&pg=PA217&dq=mamgo+chinese+armenia&hl=en&ei=8UT0TaWYEcGt0AGUzeDrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=mamgo%20chinese%20armenia&f=false. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
7. ^ Edward Gibbon (1890). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. the University of California: W.W. Gibbings. p. 279. http://books.google.com/books?id=TmwJAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA279&dq=mamgo+chinese+armenia&hl=en&ei=NEr0TY7CK-Sr0AGO55XsDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=mamgo%20chinese%20armenia&f=false. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
8. ^ Maurice Fishberg (1907). Materials for the physical anthropology of the eastern European Jews, Issues 1-6 (reprint ed.). New Era Print. Co.. p. 233. http://books.google.com/books?id=pfIQnqoQz0oC&pg=PA233&dq=shu+han+persia&hl=en&ei=ZfjjTbadEqPr0gHn1dmvBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=shu%20han%20persia&f=false. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
9. ^ ^{a b c} A History of chinese civilization, Jacques Gernet.
10. ^ Kaveh Farrokh (2007). Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war. Osprey Publishing. p. 274. ISBN 1846031087. http://books.google.com/books?id=p7kltwf9yrwC&pg=PA274&dq=pirooz+sister+was+married+to+the+Chinese+emperor&hl=en&ei=K8HYTPG2OIT6lwe4mPzcCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=pirooz's%20sister%20was%20married%20to%20the%20Chinese%20emperor&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
11. ^ Lipman 1997, pp. 24–31
12. ^ Ryōtarō Shiba (2003). Kukai the universal: scenes from his life. ICG Muse. pp. 350. ISBN 4-925080-47-4. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Lt0sTMDoJsWAlAeB66DhCQ&ct=result&id=SbgPAAAAYAAJ&dq=persian+girl+ch%27ang&q=persian+girl. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
13. ^ Victor H. Mair (1996). The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 485. ISBN 0-231-07429-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=UNa4-NkYYjAC&pg=PA485&dq=iranian+dancers+tang+china&hl=en&ei=ktIsTIqxBsT6lwfquZ27Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=iranian%20whirling%20girls%20poets&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
14. ^ Amnon Shiloah (2003). Music in the World of Islam. Wayne State University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-8143-2970-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=S6gwlvp61s4C&pg=PA8&dq=iranian+dancers+china&hl=en&ei=PNMsTL-DKoa8lQfKkvXRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=iranian%20dancers%20china&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
15. ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&pg=PA23&dq=iranian+waitresses+china&hl=en&ei=btMsTLyKM8WqlAedqMXlCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=iranian%20waitresses&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
16. ^ Naotaro Kudo (1969). The life and thoughts of Li Ho: the Tʾang poet. Waseda University. p. 62. http://books.google.com/books?ei=1uYsTN_dKoT7lwfsgui9CQ&ct=result&id=QyyCAAAAIAAJ&dq=persian+girl+ch%27ang&q=persian+girls. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
17. ^ Eliot Weinberger (2009). Oranges & Peanuts for Sale. New Directions Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 0-8112-1834-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=s6OR4V0M80AC&pg=PA117&dq=persian+girl+ch'ang&hl=en&ei=1d0sTM_mOcLflgeuwsDwCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCDge#v=onepage&q=twirling%20girls&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
18. ^ Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais (2008publisher=Cengage Learning). Pre-modern East Asia: to 1800: a cultural, social, and political history. p. 97. ISBN 0-547-00539-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=YukVl8fUr48C&pg=PA97&dq=dancing+girls+persia+china&hl=en&ei=5NMsTIydKYK0lQec48CZCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBDgU#v=onepage&q=dancing%20girls%20emperor%20xuanzong&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
19. ^ Mohammad Adnan Bakhit (2000). History of humanity. UNESCO. p. 423. ISBN 92-3-102813-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=ixCyd2lByggC&pg=PA423&dq=iranian+girls+tang&hl=en&ei=w94sTLftKoW8lQeuo4zsCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=dancing%20girls&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
20. ^ Jane Gaston Mahler (1959). The Westerners among the figurines of the T'ang dynasty of China. Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. p. 19. http://books.google.com/books?id=7S_VAAAAMAAJ&q=dancing+girls+persia+china&dq=dancing+girls+persia+china&hl=en&ei=F9QsTIjJJ4TGlQfd6oDPCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBzge. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
21. ^ Universiṭat Tel-Aviv. Faḳulṭah le-omanuyot (1993). ASSAPH.: Studies in the theatre, Issues 9-12. Faculty of Visual and Performing Arts, Tel Aviv University. p. 89. http://books.google.com/books?ei=nNIsTLnYGcOblgew5cCnCQ&ct=result&id=jDUrAQAAIAAJ&dq=persian+dancers+china&q=ten+young+dancing+girls+were+sent+from+Persia+to+China+to+entertain. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
22. ^ Avraham Oz, Universiṭat Tel-Aviv. Faḳulṭah le-omanuyot (1993). ASSAPH.: Studies in the theatre, Issues 9-12. Faculty of Visual and Performing Arts, Tel Aviv University. p. 89. http://books.google.com/books?ei=nNIsTLnYGcOblgew5cCnCQ&ct=result&http://books.google.com/books?ei=kdgsTNirMMP_lgePuOiTCQ&ct=result&id=45ZZAAAAMAAJ&dq=ten+young+dancing+girls+were+sent+from+Persia+to+China+to+entertain&q=ten+young+dancing+girls. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
23. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Memoirs of the Research Department, Issue 20. http://books.google.com/books?ei=mDcuTLznNcL7lwfPoP3jCg&ct=result&id=eJfWAAAAMAAJ&dq=liu+ch%27ang+iranian+girls&q=waitresses. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
24. ^ Naotaro Kudo (1969). The life and thoughts of Li Ho: the Tʼang poet, Volume 1. Waseda University. p. 62. http://books.google.com/books?id=QyyCAAAAIAAJ&q=Even+the+blue+eyed+Greek+and+Persian+girls+appeared+as+dancers+and+waitresses+in+the+bars+and+clubs+and&dq=Even+the+blue+eyed+Greek+and+Persian+girls+appeared+as+dancers+and+waitresses+in+the+bars+and+clubs+and&hl=en&ei=UzyQTKbyH8L78AaP1OG8DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
25. ^ Maria Jaschok, Jingjun Shui (2000). The history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their own. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0700713026. http://books.google.com/books?id=jV9_YvgUmpsC&pg=PA74&dq=wudai+emperors+preferred+to+marry+persian+women+song+families+marry+women+from+arabia&hl=en&ei=5TwuTKeWL4T7lwfJwbnhCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=wudai%20emperors%20preferred%20to%20marry%20persian%20women%20song%20families%20marry%20women%20from%20arabia&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
26. ^ Lombard-Salmon Claudine (2004). Les Persans à l'extrémité orientale de la route maritime (IIe A.E. -XVIIe siècle). Archipel. Volume 68. p. 40. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/arch_0044-8613_2004_num_68_1_3830?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&. Retrieved 03 mars 2011. 
27. ^ Société pour l'étude et la connaissance du monde insulindien, Association Archipel, Centre de documentatio et de recherches sur l'Asie du Sud-Est et le monde indonésien, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (France), Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales, École des hautes études en sciences sociales (2004). Archipel, Issues 67-68. SECMI.. p. 40. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ixuAAAAMAAJ&q=Les+chroniques+52+gardent+le+souvenir+d'une+dame+persane+qui+%C3%A9tait+dans+le+harem+du+quatri%C3%A8me+et+dernier+souverain,+Liu+Chang+glJH+(959-971).+Les+d%C3%A9buts+du+commerce+international+sur+le+territoire+des+souverains+de+l'%C3%89tat+de+...&dq=Les+chroniques+52+gardent+le+souvenir+d'une+dame+persane+qui+%C3%A9tait+dans+le+harem+du+quatri%C3%A8me+et+dernier+souverain,+Liu+Chang+glJH+(959-971).+Les+d%C3%A9buts+du+commerce+international+sur+le+territoire+des+souverains+de+l'%C3%89tat+de+...&hl=en&ei=0i5vTebHJoK8lQeTxJxf&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 2011-3-03. 
28. ^ 文人誤會：宋真宗寫錯了一個字（5）
29. ^ Walter Joseph Fischel (1951). Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949. University of California Press. p. 407. http://books.google.com/books?id=v68NAAAAIAAJ&q=persian+harem+southern+han&dq=persian+harem+southern+han&hl=en&ei=CesrTJzhD8OclgfClKXHCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
30. ^ University of California (1868-1952), University of California (System), University of California, Berkeley (1951). University of California publications in Semitic philology, Volumes 11-12. University of California Press. p. 407. http://books.google.com/books?ei=CesrTJzhD8OclgfClKXHCQ&ct=result&id=zucsAQAAIAAJ&dq=persian+harem+southern+han&q=persian+harem+liu+ch%27ang+southern+han. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
31. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. the University of Michigan: The Toyo Bunko. p. 34. http://books.google.com/books?ei=TUtTTZvCLcL6lwfv-rmNCg&ct=result&id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=a+young+Persian+woman%2C+whom+he+doted+upon+so+much&q=persian+woman. Retrieved February 9 2011. 
32. ^ History of Science Society, Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences (1939). Isis, Volume 30. Publication and Editorial Office, Dept. of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. p. 120. http://books.google.com/books?id=NlEbAAAAMAAJ&q=Arabs+enjoyed+virtually+the+rights+of+extraterritoriality.+They+brought+their+wives+who+were+known+to+the+Chinese+as+%22Persian+women.%22+Emperor+Kiu+Chang+of+the+Five+dynasties+(907-959)+had+a+young+Arabian+woman+in+his+harem&dq=Arabs+enjoyed+virtually+the+rights+of+extraterritoriality.+They+brought+their+wives+who+were+known+to+the+Chinese+as+%22Persian+women.%22+Emperor+Kiu+Chang+of+the+Five+dynasties+(907-959)+had+a+young+Arabian+woman+in+his+harem&hl=en&ei=0HRTTd-2NYL6lwfapcW6Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA. Retrieved February 9 2011. 
33. ^ Dillon 1999, pp. 19–21
34. ^ van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah, History of Oriental Astronomy, Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 19–32, ISBN 1-4020-0657-8 
35. ^ McDougal Littel, WORLD HISTORY: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION, New York edtition,ISBN 978-0-618-91330-5, ISBN 0-618-91330-0, Pages 514–515
36. ^ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1-2. Columbia University Press. p. 817. ISBN 0-231-03801-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=067On0JgItAC&pg=PA817&dq=ch'ang+fond+persian+girl&hl=en&ei=5wEsTJesKMT_lgfR5KHnCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=li%20nu%20married%20an%20arab%20or%20persian%20girl&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
37. ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranica.com/articles/chinese-iranian-vii. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 

References

• Dillon, Michael (1999), China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects, Routledge, ISBN 0-7007-1026-4, http://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC 
• Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1997), Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China, University of Washington Press, ISBN 962-209-468-6, http://books.google.com/books?id=4_FGPtLEoYQC 
• http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/aug/china-and-iran- Article by Nabil Rastani

Further reading

• John W. Garver. China And Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-imperial World. 2006. ISBN 0-295-98631-X
• "Persian language in Xinjiang" (زبان فارسی در سین کیانگ). Zamir Sa'dollah Zadeh (دکتر ضمیر سعدالله زاد ه). Nameh-i Iran (نامه ایران) V.1. Editor: Hamid Yazdan Parast (حمید یزدان پرست). ISBN 964-423-572-X Perry-Castañeda Library collection under DS 266 N336 2005.
• John Keefer Douglas, Matthew B. Nelson, and Kevin Schwartz; "Fueling the Dragon's Flame: How China's Energy Demands Affect its Relationships in the Middle East." United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission, October 2006. [1]
• Chris Zambelis and Brandon Gentry, "China Through Arab Eyes: American Influence in the Middle East", Parameters, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 60–72. [2]

External links

Historical

• [3]- Article by Nabil Rastani
• "Iran in Central Asia"
• The Sassanids in China
• For more on Iranian-Chinese relations in history see Encyclopædia Iranica p. 424–460.

Modern

• REALITE-EU China's Relations with Iran
• "Iran's New Alliance With China Could Cost U.S. Leverage". By Robin Wright, Washington Post Staff Writer, Wednesday, November 17, 2004; Page A21 [4] [5]
• Chinese Arms Transfers to Iran
• Photos of Jiang Zemin at Persepolis