Old Norse morphology

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Old Norse has three categories of verb (strong, weak, & present-preterite) and two categories of noun (strong, weak). Conjugation and declension are carried out by a mix of inflection and two nonconcatenative morphological processes: umlaut, a backness-based alteration to the root vowel; and ablaut, a replacement of the root vowel, in verbs.

Nouns, adjectives and pronouns are declined in four grammatical cases – nominative, accusative, genitive and dative, in singular and plural. Some pronouns (first and second person) have dual number in addition to singular and plural. The nouns have three grammatical genders – masculine, feminine or neuter - and adjectives and pronouns are declined to match the gender of nouns. The genitive is used partitively, and quite often in compounds and kennings (e.g.: Urðarbrunnr, the well of Urðr; Lokasenna, the gibing of Loki). Most declensions (of nouns and pronouns) use -a as a regular genitive plural ending, and all declensions use -um as their dative plural ending.

All neuter words have identical nominative and accusative forms,^[1] and all feminine words have identical nominative and accusative plurals.^[2]

The gender of some words' plurals does not agree with that of their singulars, such as lim and mund.^{[V 1]}

Morphophonology

See also: Morphophonology and Bleeding order

Conditioned sound changes can cause some forms of a word to mismatch, or match in some words but not others. When speakers can't determine these conditions, but the effects remain, they are re-analyzed by speakers as rules for changing sounds during inflection, the morphophonology of the language. In this way, the history of a language affects its speakers.

During Proto-Germanic

See also: Evolution of Proto-Germanic

Verner's law shifted Proto-Germanic /*h/ > /*g/ after an unstressed syllable. Afterwards, stress shifted to the first syllable in all words.^[3]:1 In many Old Norse verbs, a lost /g/ reappears in the forms of some verbs, which makes their morphology abnormal, but remain regular because the forms containing /g/s are the same for each verb they appear in.

ex.: Proto-Germanic *slōhúm > *slōgúm (we struck) had an unstressed first syllable, but the corresponding singular, *slṓh (I struck), had only a stressed syllable. These became Old Norse slógum and sló.^[3]:1

Before Old Norse

See also: Old Norse umlaut

Umlaut was originally an assimilation of root vowels to suffixes having the front phonemes /i, j/ (i-umlaut) and the back phonemes /u, w/ (u-umlaut) in Proto-Germanic. The suffixes were not on all forms of the same words, so when the suffixes underwent syncope during the transition into Old Norse, the remaining umlaut of the vowel indicated the form. From then on speakers would alternate the vowel as an act of inflection.

Verbs

See also: Germanic verb and Germanic subjunctive

Verbs are conjugated in person and number, in present and past tense, in indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood. There are elements of repetition and minor variation in the inflections, but the type of verb also determines which patterns are present. The subjunctives show the largest and widest spread pattern among the inflections, with both strong and weak classes ending subjunctives (past and present) with ek/þú/þat -a/-ir/-i, vér/þér/þau -im/-ið/-i, excepting only a minor variation in the 3rd and 4th strong conjugations.

The active participle is used to form a gerund or a verbal noun^{[V 2]:2} with weak masculine singulars but strong masculine plurals in r,^[4] or else with weak neuter declension. As a plain participle, it is a weak adjective.^{[V 3]} The participle appears in two genders within the same verse in Hávamál: "gínanda úlfi / galandi kráku."^[5] The general sense of the noun is of the English suffix -er or of being able to perform the action.^{[V 2]:3} The plural as a prefix, ęndr-, is equivalent to the English and Latin prefix re-.

The case of the object of an Old Norse verb is lexically assigned, meaning that the case is determined on a per-verb basis. Most verbs take an accusative object, but some, such as gefa (give) have primary and secondary objects in the accusative and dative, while still others have nominative, genitive, or dative direct objects.

Strong verbs

See also: Germanic strong verb

Strong verbs, unlike weak verbs, are conjugated by ablaut, a process that replaces, rather than modifies, their root vowel. The English sing uses ablaut to conjugate to sang in the past tense and sung as the past participle. Like weak verbs, strong verbs use inflections and umlaut, but they rely on them much less to distinguish forms and conjugations. While the strongs' umlaut and inflectional patterns are largely the same from verb to verb, there are different sets and numbers of vowels involved in ablaut, and so their patterns are used to classify the strong conjugations. If there are 2 vowels in the pattern (as in the 5th & some 6th conjugation patterns), the 2nd is used for all the past tenses. If there are 3, the 2nd vowel is used for the indicative past singulars, & the 3rd for the other past tenses. The 1st vowel is used for the remaining forms: the infinitive, present forms, and imperative, and usually the past participle. However, some 3-vowel words have a 4th vowel appearing only in the participle.

1st: í, ei, i, i/e 2nd: ú/jú/jó, au, u, (o)		rísa (í, ei, i, i) (rise)						bjóða (jó, au, u, o) (bid)
		Inf	rís-a	Imp	rís	Pr P	rís-andi	Inf	bjóð-a	Imp	bjóð	Pr P	bjóð-andi
		Pa P						Pa P
		N	ris-it	M	ris-inn	F	ris-in	N	boð-it	M	boð-inn	F	boð-in
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	rís	rís-s		rís-um	rís-ið	rís-a	býð	býð-r		bjóð-um	bjóð-ið	bjóð-a
	Subj	rís-a	rís-ir	rís-i	rís-im		rís-i	bjóð-a	bjóð-ir	bjóð-i	bjóð-im		bjóð-i
Pa T	Ind	reis	reis-t	reis	ris-um	ris-uð	ris-u	bauð	baut-t	bauð	buð-um	buð-uð	buð-u
	Subj	ris-a	ris-ir	ris-i	ris-im	ris-ið	ris-i	byð-a	byð-ir	byð-i	byð-im	byð-ið	byð-i

The third and fourth conjugation have an i, rather than an a, in the 1st person subjunctive past ending. Third conjugation words ending in n, g, or k have a u for their past participles' root vowel. The jas of the 3rd conjugation are due to breaking.

3rd: i/e/ja, a, u, (u/o) 4th: e/o, a, á, (u/o/ó)		brenna (e, a, u, u) (burn)						gefa (e, a, á) (give)
		Inf	brenn-a	Imp	brenn	Pr P	brenn-andi	Inf	gef-a	Imp	gef	Pr P	gef-andi
		Pa P						Pa P
		N	brunn-it	M	brunn-inn	F	brunn-in	N	gef-it	M	gef-inn	F	gef-in
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	brenn	brenn-r		brenn-um	brenn-ið	brenn-a	gef	gef-r		gef-um	gef-ið	gef-a
	Subj	brenn-a	brenn-ir	brenn-i	brenn-im		brenn-i	gef-a	gef-ir	gef-i	gef-im		gef-i
Pa T	Ind	brann	brann-t	brann	brunn-um	brunn-uð	brunn-u	gaf	gaf-t	gaf	gáf-um	gáf-uð	gáf-u
	Subj	brynn-i	brynn-ir	brynn-i	brynn-im	brynn-ið	brynn-i	gæf-i	gæf-ir	gæf-i	gæf-im	gæf-ið	gæf-i

The 5th conjugation is cognate with English's take/took/taken conjugation. The 6th conjugation is a heterogenous category. Its ablaut patterns include a/á, e/é; au, jó; a, jó, jo; and ý, jó, ú.

5th: a, ó 6th: Various		fara (a, ó) (go)						gráta (á, é) (greit, weep)
		Inf	far-a	Imp	far	Pr P	far-andi	Inf	grát-a	Imp	grát	Pr P	grát-andi
		Pa P						Pa P
		N	far-it	M	far-inn	F	far-in	N	grát-it	M	grát-inn	F	grát-in
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	fęr	fęr-r		fǫr-um	far-ið	far-a	græt	græt-r		grát-um	grát-ið	grát-a
	Subj	far-a	far-ir	far-i	far-im		far-i	grát-a	grát-ir	grát-i	grát-im		grát-i
Pa T	Ind	fór	fór-t	fór	fór-um	fór-uð	fór-u	grét	grét-st	grét	grét-um	grét-uð	grét-u
	Subj	fœr-a	fœr-ir	fœr-i	fœr-im	fœr-ið	fœr-i	grét-a	grét-ir	grét-i	grét-im	grét-ið	grét-i

Verbs in -ra

The -ra conjugation consists of strong verbs with weak preterites^[4] that use an r rather than a dental in their inflection. These arose as contractions of reduplicated verbs.^[6] They correspond to modern Icelandic ri-verbs. When the pre-contraction form of the verb contained a velar, it persisted in the past indicative plurals, past subjunctives, and past participle, and the verb assumed the characteristics (ablaut, inflection) of normal strong conjugation. Alternate, regularized past-tenses for these were also in use in some dialects, with an -ø-r or -e-r format.^{[V 4]} Verbs like kjósa and snúa follow the ú/jú/jó, au, u, (o) ablaut pattern, and verbs like slá follow the a, ó ablaut.^{[V 5]:3}

-ra		snúa (turn)[7][V 6][8]
		Inf	snú-a	Imp	snú, snúðú	Pr P	snú-andi
		Pa P
		N	snú-it, snør-it	M	snú-inn snør-inn	F	snú-in snør-in
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	sný	sný-r, snýrðu	sný-r	snú-m	snú-ið	snú-a
	Subj	snú-a	snú-ir	snú-i	snú-im		snú-i
Pa T	Ind	snø-ra	snø-rir	snø-ri	snø-rum	snø-ruð	snø-ru
	Subj				snø-rim	snø-rið	snø-ri

The forms of slá without the g have absorbed said consonant, lengthening the vowel in the process. When this process is taken into account, the conjugation can be seen as that of a regular verb with an a, ó ablaut pattern. The -ø-r past tense forms were used in some dialects, with sløri and sløru as attested forms, but was rare in writing.^{[V 4][V 5]:3}

-ra: Velar stem		slá (a, ó) (strike, slay)[V 4][V 7][9]
		Inf	slá	Imp	slá, sláðú	Pr P	slá-ndi
		Pa P
		N	slęg-it	M	slęg-inn	F	slęg-in
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	slæ	slæ-r		slá-(u)m	slá-ið	slá
	Subj	slá	slá-ir	slá-i	slá-im		slá-i
Pa T	Ind	sló	sló-(tt-(ú))	sló	slóg-um	slóg-uð	slóg-u
	Subj	slœg-a	slœg-ir	slœg-i	slœg-im	slœg-ið	slœg-i

Weak verbs

Weak verbs distinguish the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive primarily by adding a suffix with a dental (t, d, or ð). This is the primary mode of distinction of tenses, in contrast with the radical vowel changes characteristic of the strong verbs. Preceded by the dental, the subjunctive past tense endings take the form of their present tense endings, changing the inflectional vowel to i in the plural. The indicative forms take the subjunctive forms, changing the inflectional vowel to u in the plural. The dental is preceded by an a in some verbs, causing the past tenses to become trisyllabic.

The first conjugation contains a class of derivates with characteristic suffixes: inchoatives in -na, such as vakna;^[10] causals in -ga from adjectives in -igr; causals in -ka; iteratives in -sa; verbs in -la, a kind of diminutive; and verbs in -ja, -va, and -ra.^{[V 8]:1} The -n suffix is applied to the infinitive of some of these verbs to derive feminine nouns from them.^[11]:3 The inflections containing ǫð (see table) may spell and pronounce the ǫ as a reduced u or an a depending on the dialect.

1st: a		boða (að) (bode)						kalla (að) (call)
		Inf	boð⁠-a	Imp	boð⁠-a	Pr P	boð⁠-andi	Inf	kall⁠-a	Imp	kall⁠-a	Pr P	kall-andi
		Pa P						Pa P
		N	boð⁠-at	M	boð⁠-aðr	F	boð⁠-ǫð	N	kall⁠-at	M	kall⁠-aðr	F	kǫll⁠-ǫð
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	boð⁠-a	boð⁠-ar		boð⁠-um	boð -ið (-it)	boð⁠-a	kall⁠-a	kall⁠-ar		kǫll⁠-um	kall-ið	kall⁠-a
	Subj		boð⁠-ir	boð⁠-i	boð⁠-im		boð⁠-i		kall⁠-ir	kall⁠-i	kall⁠-im		kall⁠-i
Pa T	Ind	boð-aða	boð-aðir	boð-aði	boð-ǫðum	boð-ǫðuð	boð-ǫðu	kall-aða	kall-aðir	kall-aði	kǫll-ǫðum	kǫll-ǫðuð	kǫll-ǫðu
	Subj				boð-aðim	boð-aðið	boð-aði				kall-aðim	kall-aðið	kall-aði

Many 2nd conjugation verbs are derived by i-umlaut of the second ablaut form of a strong verb, often serving as a causal equivalent to it. For example, bręnna — to make burn derives from brenna (ek brann, þau brunnu) — to burn; be burning.^{[V 8]:2} All of these verbs originally sported a characteristic i or v at the beginning of their inflections, but these were lost except in roots ending in g, k, or a vowel, as in fylgja.^{[V 8]:2} The -ing & -ingr suffixes are added to a finite form of some of these verbs to derive feminine and masculine nouns from them.^[11]:3

2nd: i		dœma (da, dr) (judge)						fylgja (ða, t) (help)
		Inf	dœm-a	Imp	dœm	Pr P	dœm⁠-andi	Inf	fylg-ja	Imp	fylg	Pr P	fylg-jandi
		Pa P						Pa P
		N	dœm⁠-t	M	dœm⁠-dr	F	dœm⁠-d	N	fylg⁠-t
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	dœm⁠-i	dœm⁠-ir		dœm⁠-um	dœm⁠-ið	dœm⁠-a	fylg⁠-i	fylg⁠-ir		fylg⁠-jum	fylg⁠-ið	fylg⁠-ja
	Subj	dœm⁠-a	dœm⁠-ir	dœm⁠-i	dœm⁠-im		dœm⁠-i	fylg⁠-ja	fylg⁠-ir	fylg⁠-i	fylg⁠-im		fylg⁠-i
Pa T	Ind	dœm-da	dœm-dir	dœm⁠-di	dœm-dum	dœm-duð	dœm⁠-du	fylg-ða	fylg-ðir	fylg⁠-ði	fylg-ðum	fylg-ðuð	fylg⁠-ðu
	Subj				dœm-dim	dœm-dið	dœm⁠-di				fylg-ðim	fylg-ðið	fylg⁠-ði

All forms of the 3rd conjugation are i-umlauted except indicative preterites and past participles. The -ning & -ningr suffixes are added to a form of some of these verbs which isn't umlauted to derive feminine and masculine nouns from them. ex. spurning (a speering) from spyrja^[11]:3

3rd: suppressed i		glęðja (ða, ðr) (gladden)						spyrja (ða, ðr) (ask)
		Inf	glęð-ja	Imp	glęð	Pr P	glęð-jandi	Inf	spyr-ja	Imp	spyr	Pr P	spyr-jandi
		Pa P						Pa P
		N	glat⁠-t	M	glad⁠-dr	F	glǫd⁠-d	N	spur⁠-t	M	spur⁠-ðr	F	spur⁠-ð
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	glęð	glęð⁠-r		glęð-⁠jum	glęð⁠-ið	glęð⁠-ja	spyr	spyr⁠-r		spyr-⁠jum	spyr⁠-ið	spyr⁠-ja
	Subj	glęð⁠-ja	glęð⁠-ir	glęð⁠-i	glęð⁠-im		glęð⁠-i	spyr⁠-ja	spyr⁠-ir	spyr⁠-i	spyr⁠-im		spyr⁠-i
Pa T	Ind	glad-da	glad-dir	glad⁠-di	glǫd-dum	glǫd-duð	glǫd⁠-du	spur-ða	spur-ðir	spur⁠-ði	spur-ðum	spur-ðuð	spur⁠-ðu
	Subj	ględ-da	ględ-dir	ględ⁠-di	ględ-dim	ględ-dið	ględ⁠-di	spyr-ða	spyr-ðir	spyr⁠-ði	spyr-ðim	spyr-ðið	spyr⁠-ði

Subjunctive preterites of the 4th conjugation are i-umlauted.

4th: i		vaka (ta, tr) (be awake)						duga (ða, at) (help)
		Inf	Imp	Pr P	Pa P			Inf	Imp	Pr P	Pa P
		vak-a	vak(-i)	vak-andi	N	vak-at		dug-a	dug(-i)	dug-andi	N	dug-at
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	vak⁠-i	vak⁠-ir		vǫk⁠-um	vak⁠-ið	vak⁠-a	dug⁠-i	dug⁠-ir		dug⁠-um	dug⁠-ið	dug⁠-a
	Subj	vak⁠-a	vak⁠-ir	vak⁠-i	vak⁠-im		vak⁠-i	dug⁠-a	dug⁠-ir	dug⁠-i	dug⁠-im		dug⁠-i
Pa T	Ind	vak-ta	vak-tir	vak-ti	vǫk-tum	vǫk-tuð	vǫk-tu	dug-ða	dug-ðir	dug-ði	dug-ðum	dug-ðuð	dug-ðu
	Subj	vęk-ta	vęk-tir	vęk-ti	vęk-tim	vęk-tið	vęk-ti	dyg-ða	dyg-ðir	dyg-ði	dyg-ðim	dyg-ðið	dyg-ði

Present-preterite verbs

See also: Preterite-present verb

Present-preterite, or present-in-past, verbs form their present tenses using the ablaut patterns of strong verbs' past tenses. Their past tenses are formed like weak verbs'.

		The Verb Substantive vera (e, a, á, e) (be)
		Inf	ver-a	Pr P	ver-andi	Pa P N	ver-it
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau
Imper		ver	ver-tu	ver	verit
Pr T	Ind	em	er-t	er	er-um	er-uð	er-u
	Subj	sé	sé-r	sé	sé-m	sé-ð	sé
Pa T	Ind	va(r/s)	var-t	va(r/s)	vár-um	vár-uð	vár-u
	Subj	vær-a	vær-ir	vær-i	vær-im	vær-ið	vær-i

Ten verbs with Present in Preterite form.

INDIC.

Pres.

Sing.

1.

á

kná

má

skal

kann

mun (mon)

man

þarf

ann

veit

2.

á-tt

kná-tt

má-tt

skal-t

kann-t

mun-t

man-t

þarf-t

ann-t

veiz-t

3.

á

kná

má

skal

kann

mun

man

þarf

ann

veit

Plur.

1.

eig-um

kneg-um

meg-um

skul-um

kunn-um

mun-um

mun-um

þurf-um

unn-um

vit-um

2.

eig-uð

kneg-uð

meg-uð

skul-uð

kunn-uð

mun-uð

mun-ið

þurf-ið

unn-ið

vit-uð

3.

eig-u

kneg-u

meg-u

skul-u

kunn-u

mun-u

mun-a

þurf-a

unn-a

vit-u

Pret.

Sing.

1.

á-tta

kná-tta

má-tta

kunn-a

mun-da

mun-da

þurf-a

unn-a

vis-sa

as regular weak verbs

IMPERAT.

eig

kunn

mun

unn

vit

SUBJ.

Pres.

Sing.

1.

eig-a

kneg-a

meg-a

skyl-a

kunn-a

myn-a

mun-a

þurf-a

unn-a

vit-a

as regular weak verbs

Pret.

Sing.

1.

ætt-a

knætt-a

mætt-a

skyl-da

kynn-a

myn-da

myn-da

þyrf-ta

ynn-a

vis-sa

as regular weak verbs

INFIN.

Pres.

eig-a

meg-a

skyl-u

kunn-a

mun-u

mun-a

þurf-a

unn-a

vit-a

Pret.

knúttu

skyl-du

mun-du

PART.

Act.

eig-andi

meg-andi

kunn-andi

mun-andi

þurf-andi

unn-andi

vit-andi

PART.

Pass.

Neut.

ú-tt

má-tt

kunn-at

mun-at

þurf-t

unn-(a)t

vit-at

Suffixes and clitics

See also: Reflexive verb

The reflexive pronoun's accusative, sik, is contracted and suffixed to the verb as -k, -sk, or -zk in order to form the reflexive suffix.^[12][13] This suffix is often referred to as Old Norse's "middle voice." In the early 13th century, the suffixes became -z and -s, and later -zt and -zst.^[12] As a middle voice, it can be thought of as passivizing an action without using passive voice syntax. This usage of reflexivity is paralleled in English with sentence pairs such as "he sat down" and "he sat himself down."

		Reflexive/reciprocal suffix or middle voice
		On a Weak Verb: kalla (að) (call) ([4])/[V 9]						On a Strong Verb: láta (let) [V 9]
		ek	þú	þat	vér	þér	þau	ek/þú/þat			vér	þér	þau
Pr T	Ind	kǫllu-mk/ kalla-sk	kalla-sk		kǫllu-m(s)k	kalli-sk	kalla-sk	læzk			látu-mk	láti-zk	láta-sk
	Subj	kǫllu-mk/ kalli-sk	kalli-sk		kalli-m(s)k	kalli-(s/z)k	kalli-sk	láti-sk			láti-mk	láti-zk	láti-sk
Pa T	Ind	kǫlluðu-mk/ kallaði-sk	kall(i/a)ði-sk	kallaði-sk	kǫlluðu-m(s)k	kǫlluðu-(s/z)k	kǫlluðu-sk	lézk			létu-mk	létu-zk	létu-sk
	Subj		kallaði-sk		kallaði-m(s)k	kallaði-(s/z)k	kallaði-sk	léti-sk			léti-mk	léti-zk	léti-sk
Pa P	N	kalla-zk						Pa P	N	láti-zk

Verbs with the Negative Suffix.
			Pres.	Pret.	Pres.	Pret.	Pres.	Pret.	Pres.	Pret.
INDIC.	Sing.	1.	em-k-at	var-k-at(vas-k-at)	skal-k-at	skyldi-g-a	mon-k-a	mundi-g-a	hyk-k-at	átti-g-a
		2.	ert-at-tu	vart-at-tu	skalt-at-tu	skyldir-a	mont-at-tu	mundir-a	hyggr-at	áttir-a
		3.	er-at (es-at)	var-at (vas-at)	skal-at	skyldi-t	mon-at	mundi-t	hyggr-at	átti-t
	Plur.	3.	eru-t	váru-t	skulu-t	skyldu-t	monu-t	mundi-t	hyggja-t	áttu-t
IMPERAT.			ver-at-tu (be not thou!), lát-at-tu (let not thou!), grát-at-tu (weep not thou!), etc.

Nouns

Old Norse and other Germanic languages had two types of regular declension. They are called the strong and weak declensions by analogy with the strong and weak conjugations. These declensions are further subdivided into stem classes: groups of nouns distinguished by the historical or present morphophonological characteristics that the nouns of each class's stems share(d). Their names take after their Proto-Germanic or PIE ancestors, and refer to the suffixes present on those older nouns. Because umlaut was caused by these suffixes, there is a strong correlation between the phonetic characteristics of the suffix and the type of umlaut seen among stems of a class. Besides the latter classification, the stems may be grouped into the root noun, consonant stem, and vocalic stem declensions, in Proto-Germanic terms.

In Proto-Germanic, the neuter stems modeled their nominative/accusative singulars after masculine accusative singulars, while their nominative/accusative plurals were modeled after the nominative singular of the corresponding feminine declension.^[10]:3.3.1

Strong nouns

Old Norse has 2 strong neuter declensions, and 3 strong masculine and feminine declensions. The masculine and feminine declensions may be referred to as the a, i, and r declensions, after their nominative plural inflections of -ar, -ir, and -r respectively.

Though the a-declension masculines tend towards a genitive -s, and the i- and r-declension words towards -ar, many words are found going against the norm. Grautr, skógr, and hǫfundr, for example, are a-declension nouns with -ar for a genitive singular. The -i of the dative singular is frequently dropped from many words, particularly in the i-declension. Bisyllabic proper names in -arr (Einarr) or -urr (Gizurr) do not contract as hamarr does before an inflectional syllable, due to differing etymologies. The following words demonstrate two PIE o-stem reflexes, one bisyllabic, a yo-stem reflex, and an iyo-stem reflex.^[10] The latter stem type consists mainly of poetic words.^{[V 10]}

Masculine a declension
	armr (arm)		hamarr (hammer)		hęrr (a people)[V 11]		hęllir (cave)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	arm-r	arm-ar	hamar-r	ham'r-ar	hęr-r	hęr-jar	hęll-ir	hęll-ar
Accusative	arm	arm-a	hamar	ham'ra	hęr	hęr-ja	hęll-i	hęll-a
Genitive	arm-s	arm-a	hamar-s	ham'ra	hęr-jar	hęr-ja	hęll-is	hęll-a
Dative	arm-i	ǫrm-um	ham'r-i	hǫm'r-um	hęr-i	hęr-jum	hęll-i	hęll-um

Among the i-declension masculines are the wa-stem reflexes. These have a u-umlauted root caused by a radical v.

The strong feminines descend from PIE ā stems.^[10]3.3 PIE -ā developed into PGmc. -ō and finally Proto-Norse -u,^[10]3.3.1 leading to the singulars of these words being u-umlauted under that inflection's influence. Their plurals are the same as those of the analogous masculine declension, except for the nominative and accusative being the same. A dative singular u inflection is found in some nouns, most noticeably in the i-declension where it is sometimes accompanied by an accusative singular u.^{[V 10]} Some nouns, prominently among the nouns in ęrmr, carry a nominative singular r inflection.^{[V 10]} However, many nouns do not have any inflectional distinctions among the singulars except from the genitive. Under these circumstances the case system aligns with that of most English nouns. e.g.: "A mouse's (G) mouse (N) gave a mouse (A) to a mouse (D)."

Feminine a declension
	gjǫf (gift)		Hęl		ęrmr (arm/sleeve)		ǫr (arrow)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	gjǫf	gjaf-ar	Hęl	Hęl-jar	ęrm-r	ęrm-ar	ǫr	ǫr-var
Accusative					ęrm-i
Genitive	gjaf-ar	gjaf-a	Hęl-jar	Hęl-ja	ęrm-ar	ęrm-a	ǫr-var	ǫr-va
Dative	gjǫf	gjǫf-um	Hęl-ju	Hęl-jum	ęrm-i	ęrm-um	ǫr-u	ǫr-um

The neuter declensions' genitive and dative mirror the masculine a declension's.^[10]:3.3.1 The nom./acc. plural is u-umlauted from the singulars, but this only alters nouns without a as their root, leaving number indistinct in many strong neuters for these cases. PGmc -ja stem reflexes, such as nęs and klæði, are umlauted without regard to stem weight.^[14]

Neuters with masculine a singulars
	barn (baby)		nęs (ness)		klæði (cloth)		ríki (power)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nom. & Acc.	barn	bǫrn	nęs		klæði		ríki
Genitive	barn-s	barn-a	nęs-s	nęsi-a	klæði-s	klæð-a	ríki-s	ríki-a
Dative	barn-i	bǫrn-um	nęsi	nęsi-um	klæði	klæð-um	ríki	ríki-um

Neuters with masculine i singulars
	tré (tree)[V 12]		hǫgg (strike)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nom. & Acc.	tré		hǫgg
Genitive	tré-s	trjá	hǫgg-s	hǫggu-a
Dative	tré	trjá-m	hǫggu-i	hǫgg-um

Weak nouns

One main feature of weak nouns is that they do not distinguish the non-nominative singular cases from each other. This effectively forms a nominative-oblique case dynamic confined to the weak singulars. Historically, the Proto-Germanic weak nouns were characterized by a nasal suffix applied as a case marker. These were mostly absorbed by their preceding vowels by the time Old Norse developed, with the main exceptions being those suffixes in the weak feminine and neuter declensions' genitive plurals.^{[V 13]:1} As a result, weak nouns are referred to as the n stems, a consonant stem class.

The plural inflection of the weak masculine declension is that same as the strong masculine a declension. The weak declension contains the endings -ingi and -yrki/-virki, as well as some weak versions of strong masculine nouns, names, and endings.^{[V 13]:1}

Masculines in -i
	bogi (bow)		bandingi (prisoner)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	bog-i	bog-ar	band-ing-i	band-ing-jar
Accusative	bog-a	bog-a	band-ing-ja	band-ing-ja
Genitive		bog-a		band-ing-ja
Dative		bog-um		bǫnd-ing-jum

The weak feminines with the -a ending vary greatly in the genitive plural, but most fall into a few groups: Nouns with -na as ending; nouns with no genitive plural; nouns that form the genitive plural by attaching the definite article's genitive plural to the nominative singular; nouns whose genitive singular is used collectively.^{[V 13]:2}

Feminines in -a
	varta (wart)		saga (story)		gyðja (goddess)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	vart-a	vǫrt-ur	sag-a	sǫg-ur	gyði-a	gyði-ur
Accusative	vǫrt-u		sǫg-u		gyði-u
Genitive		vart-na				gyði-a-nna
Dative		vǫrt-um		sǫg-um		gyði-um

As the nominative of neuter words is also the accusative, and as weak nouns have the same dative and genitive as accusative in the singulars, all of the singular forms are the same for the weak neuters. One subset of the neuter declension contains 6 nouns for parts of the body. Another contains words for objects, forming no genitive plural.^{[V 13]:4}

Neuters in -a
	auga (eye)		síma (rope)
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nom. & Acc.	aug-a	aug-u	sím-a	sím-u
Genitive		aug-na
Dative		aug-um		sím-um

The Indeclinable Feminines are an additional class of weak noun. They are conceptual in meaning, and because of this have no plurals and do not differentiate case.^{[V 13]:3} They may, in charts, be included with the feminines in -a, in which case said chart becomes:

Indeclinable Feminines
	ævi (life)
Case	Singular
N., A., D., & G.	æu-i

Pronouns and adjectives

Pronouns and adjectives are generally separate in declension. However, in semantic and syntactic usage the boundary is less clearly cut.^[15] Adjectives may be used as in English, to modify a noun (e.g., gótt vatn, good water), or may stand alone as a de facto pronoun (e.g., gótt, a good thing). The only difference in their declensions is the masculine accusative singular ending, which is -n in pronouns and -an in adjectives. Genitive and dative plurals are indistinct in gender for all pronominal and adjectival declensions. The nominative and accusative neuter singular ends in -t when the word's root vowel is short, and -tt when long.^{[V 14]}

Pronouns

The interrogatives include hvat "what", hví "why", and hvess "what sort", derived from þat, hvar "where" and hveim "whom", derived from þar, hvárt "which of two, each," and hvęrt, "whether, which of many."

There are two relative particles, er or es and sem, which can also be used as relative pronouns or adverbs. Both are completely indeclinable. The former carries the relative (non-interrogative) senses of the words which, who, when, where, and that. The latter corresponds to as, as if, alike, same as, or about the same time as, and may take on any function of er as well.

Some pronouns, such as hvárr,^[16] hvęrt,^[16] nekkvęrt,^{[V 15]} and sá,^[17] have adjectival function. This usage generally requires a different translation than their pronominal one.

Personal and possessive

Þat's singulars follow the pronominal declension irregularly, and with different lemmata for each gender. Its plurals follow the declension of the cardinal numbers irregularly, and are especially similar to tvau's forms. Variants of hánum include honum and hǫnum.

For the 1st and 2nd person, actions with one's self as an object simply use mik, þik, etc.. For the 3rd person, a separate reflexive pronoun is used, which follows the declension of the 1st and 2nd personal pronouns' singulars.

Personal Pronouns
		1st	2nd	3rd rflx.	3rd
Number	Case				Neuter	Masc.	Feminine
Singular	Nominative	ek	þú		þat	han-n	hón (hon)
	Accusative	mik	þik	sik			han-a
	Genitive	mín	þín	sín	þess	han-s	hęn-nar
	Dative	mér	þér	sér	því	hán-um	hęn-ni
Dual	Nominative	vit	(þ)it	As sing.	None*
	Accusative	okkr	ykkr
	Genitive	okkar	ykkar
	Dative	okkr	ykkr
Plural	Nominative	vér	(þ)ér		þau	þei-r	þæ-r
	Accusative	oss	yðr			þá
	Genitive	vár	yð(v)ar		þei-rra
	Dative	oss	yðr		þei-m

* Tvau "two" or bœði "both" may be used as substitute for a true 3rd personal dual.

The possessive pronouns are derived from the genitives of the personal pronouns. They are mitt, þitt, sitt, okkart, ykkart, várt, and yðart. The í of those derived from the singulars is shortened before nn or tt.

Possessive Pronouns[17]
		mitt (mín)			yð(v)art (yð(v)ar)			várt (vér)
Number	Case	Neuter	Masc.	Feminine	Neuter	Masc.	Feminine	Neuter	Masc.	Feminine
Singular	Nominative	mi-tt	min-n	mín	yð(v)ar-t	yð(v)ar-r	yður	vár-t	vár-r	vár
	Accusative			mín-a		yð(va)r-an	yð(va)r-a		vár-(a)n	vár-a
	Genitive	mín-s		min-nar	yð(v)ar-s		yð(var)-rar	vár-s		vár-rar
	Dative	mín-u	mín-um	min-ni	yð(u)r-u	yð(u)r-um	yð(var)-ri	vár-u	vár-um	vár-ri
Plural	Nominative	mín	mín-ir	mín-ar	yð(v)ar	yð(va)r-ir	yð(va)r-ar	vár	vár-ir	vár-ar
	Accusative		mín-a			yð(va)r-a			vár-a
	Genitive	min-na			yð(v)ar-ra			vár-ra
	Dative	mín-um			yð(u)r-um			vár-um

Adjectives

The comparative and superlative forms are formed by inserting -r- and -st- or -ar- and -ast- between the uninflected form of the adjective and a strong or weak ending.^{[V 14]} In the strong adjectives, the definite and superlative are strong when indefinite, weak when definite. The comparatives are weak when both definite and indefinite, and are declined like the active participle. Some strong adjectives i-umlaut their root vowel in their comparatives and superlatives, so that stórt hús (a large house) becomes stœrst (a house most large). The past participles of weak verbs decline as strong adjectives.

Hit

As the definite article, hit appears before a definite adjective and suffixed to a noun.^{[V 16]} Double definiteness occurs when hit/hinn/hin or the other definite article, þat/sá/sú, is used before a definite noun or adjective, e.g. "sá konungrinn," "inn hvíti."^[18] This type of construction persists to some extent in all modern North Germanic languages, though not generally in Icelandic.^{[19][20][21][22][23]} As the past participle of strong verbs, it appears as a verbal suffix. As a suffix, it turns nouns and strong verbs into adjectives with pronominal declension (like itself). The h is always dropped, and the root i is replaced by any vowel at the end of the noun or verb.^{[V 14]} The expected dative plural *umnum is contracted to unum.^{[V 14]} In other uses, it can appear before an adverb, after a pronoun, between two nouns, or between an adjective and a pronoun (including another adjective).^{[V 16]}

The first form of the definite article was et/enn/en.^[12][24] It was originally a distinct word, placed after the noun.^[12] Later, it appeared as it/inn/in, and in its free form also as hit/hinn/hin.^{[V 16]} In the late 14th century (particularly in Old Norwegian), an indeclinable form was popular, inu or hinu, but nowhen else.^{[V 16]}

A related word, hitt, should not be confused with hit, as they are distinct in meaning and stress, and in that the h can never be dropped from hitt.^{[V 17]}

Words in Hit
		hit (the)			komit (is come)			hundrinn (the hound)	eyrat (the ear)
Number	Case	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Masc.	Neut.
Singular	Nominative	hi-t	hin-n	hin	komi-t	komin-n	komin	hundr-inn	eyra-t
	Accusative			hin-a			komn-a	hund-inn
	Genitive	hin-s		hin-nar	komin-s		komin-nar	hunds-ins	eyra-ns
	Dative	hin-u	hin-um	hin-ni	komn-u	komin-um	komin-ni	hundi-num	eyra-nu
Plural	Nominative	hin	hin-ir	hin-ar	komin	komn-ir	komn-ar	hundar-nir	eyru-n
	Accusative		hin-a			komn-a		hunda-na
	Genitive	hin-na			komin-na			hunda-nna	eyra-nna
	Dative	hin-um			komn-um			hundu-num	eyru-num

Strong declension

Jarpt demonstrates the general case for declension. Gótt displays dental assimilation, while nekkvęrt demonstrates pronominal declension.

Strong Adjectival Declension
		jarpt (brown)			gótt (good)			nekkvęrt (indefinite pronoun)
Number	Case	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine
Singular	Nominative	jarp-t	jarp-r	jǫrp	gót-t	góð-r	góð	nekkvęr-t	nekkvęr-r	nekkvęr
	Accusative		jarp-an	jarp-a		góð-an	góð-a		nękkvęr-n	nekkvęr-a
	Genitive	jarp-s		jarp-rar	góð-s		góð-rar	nekkvęr-s		nekkvęr-rar
	Dative	jǫrp-u	jǫrp-um	jarp-ri	góð-u	góð-um	góð-ri	nekkvęr-u	nekkvęr-um	nekkvęr-ri
Plural	Nominative	jǫrp	jarp-ir	jarp-ar	góð	góð-ir	góð-ar	nekkvęr	nekkvęr-ir	nekkvęr-ar
	Accusative		jarp-a			góð-a			nekkvęr-a
	Genitive	jarp-ra			góð-ra			nekkvęr-ra
	Dative	jǫrp-um			góð-um			nekkvęr-um

Weak declension

The singulars of the weak adjectival declension are modelled after those of the weak noun declensions, and likewise have a nominative-oblique case dynamic. The plurals are not distinguished in gender, nor in case except the dative.

Weak Adjectival Declension
		þriðja (third)			Active participle
Number	Case	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine
Singular	Nominative	þriði-a	þrið-i	þriði-a	-and-a	-and-i	-and-i
	A., G., & D.		þriði-a	þriði-u		-and-a
Plural	N., A., & G.	þriði-u			-and-i
	Dative	þriði-um			-ǫnd-um

Indeclinable

The indeclinable adjectives end in -i or -a. They are not comparable. They originated from regular weak adjectives, the different endings marking gender.

Numbers

Eitt (one) follows the pronominal declension, and hundrað is a strong neuter noun. Tvau, bæði, þrjú, and fjǫgur have only plural, and their declension is given below. All other cardinal numbers are indeclinable.

The distributives and multiplicatives are all strong adjectives. The ordinals are weak, except for fyrst and annat, which are strong.

Cardinal Numbers
	bæði (both)			tvau (two)			þrjú (three)			fjǫgur (four)
Case	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.
Nominative	bæð-i	báð-ir	báð-ar	tvau (tvǫ)	tvei-r	tvæ-r	þri-ú	þri-r	þri-ár	fjǫg-ur (fjug-ur)	fjór-ir	fjór-ar
Accusative		báð-a			tvá			þri-á			fjór-a
Genitive	bę-ggja			tvę-ggja			þri-ggja			fjǫg-urra
Dative	báð-um			tvei-m (tvei-mr)			þri-m (þri-mr)			fjór-um

Footnotes and References

Sources

• Gutasagan, Lars Aronsson, ed. Project Runeberg (1997)
• Harbert, Wayne. The Germanic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2007)
• Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (1993)
• Cleasby, Richard. Vigfússon, Guðbrandur. An Icelandic-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, (1874). @: Germanic Lexicon Project (images, text), Northvegr (images), Google Books (images)

Notes

1. ^ Old Norse for Beginners: Grammar Reference - Neuter nouns
2. ^ Old Norse for Beginners: Grammar Reference - Feminine nouns
3. ^ ^{a b} The Nordic Languages; 202. The typological development of the Nordic languages I: Phonology. 1. Proto-Nordic: 1853. 2. Common Nordic: 1855. 3. Old East Nordic: 1856, 1859. 4. Old West Nordic: 1859
4. ^ ^{a b c} Sweet's Old Icelandic Primer
5. ^ Beyond Weird: Hávamál Verse 85
6. ^ UT Old Norse Online - Krause, Slocum - Lesson 1, 4.1. Strong Verb Classes
7. ^ UT Old Norse Online - Krause, Slocum - Lesson 8, 36. The Seventh Strong Conjugation
8. ^ Hákonar Saga Hákonarsonar. Snúa forms: vér snúim [...] gangim
9. ^ Þorkelsson, Jón. Beyging sterka sagnorða islensku. Slá forms: Flá; flæ, flá; flǫ́m, flaem; fló, flœga; flógom, flœgem; flegenn
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f} A Grammar of Proto-Germanic; Winfred P. Lehmann, Jonathan Slocum, ed.; §III. Inflectional Morphology
11. ^ ^{a b c} Vigfússon, Powell; An Icelandic prose reader: with notes, grammar, and glossary; #: Chapter
12. ^ ^{a b c d} A. J. Johnson Company, Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new edition, pgs. 336, 337, 338; 1895 D. Appleton and company & A. J. Johnson company
13. ^ James Hadley, George Lyman Kittredge, A Brief History of the English Language, G. & C. Merriam co., 1913; General Features of the Teutonic Languages…, § 20. Voices, "But for this s the Old Norse has sk, which is plainly the reflexive pronoun sik (self, selves) shortened and added to the active verb."
14. ^ Iverson, Salmons; The Conundrum of Old Norse Umlaut: Sound Change versus Crisis Analogy; Journal of Germanic Linguistics (2004)
15. ^ Old Norse for Beginners Lesson 4
16. ^ ^{a b} Zoëga's @ Norrœn Dýrð: Letter H
17. ^ ^{a b} UT Old Norse Online Lesson 3
18. ^ Jan Terje Faarlund, The syntax of Old Norse - Treating article + adjective as doubly definite
19. ^ Tania E. Strahan, Sjå på han mannen! On the definiteness and specificity of Scandinavian pronoun demonstratives, Nordic Journal of Linguistics, 2008
20. ^ The Nordic languages - Ulf Teleman, The standard languages and their systems in the 20th century IV: Swedish
21. ^ Determination and Double Definiteness in Faroese
22. ^ Merete Anderssen, The acquisition of compositional definiteness in Norwegian
23. ^ Jorge Hankamer & Line Mikkelsen, Definiteness marking and the structure of Danish pseudopartitives
24. ^ Zoëga's dictionary - enn/en/et

Notes from Cleasby-Vigfússon:

1. ^ References to words labelled heterogeneous in gender: Lilja-Linditre; Muna-Mundr
2. ^ ^{a b} Formation by way of inflexions, Pages: 1; 2; 3^{[dead link]}
3. ^ Adjectives, Remarks on the Weak Declension
4. ^ ^{a b c} Slá: skörungskapr-slá, slá-sléttr
5. ^ ^{a b} Irregular Verbs; Page 1 - 1: The Verb Substantitive, 2: The Verbs with Present in Preterite Form, 3: The Verbs with the Preterite in -ra, 4: General Remarks on the Strong and the Irregular Verbs; Page 2 - 4: (cont.) General Remarks on the Strong and the Irregular Verbs, 5: Modern Changes
6. ^ Snúa forms: Snúa, þeir snöri: snorri-snyðja; Kjósa, ek kjöra, kjörit/keyrit (alt. kosit), keyrinn (alt. kosinn): kitlur-kjósa; Frjósa, frjósanda: friðsæla-frost; Gnístan - goð quoth: at þú sitir mjótt ok gnúir saman lærum þínum
7. ^ Slá forms: Outlines of Grammar - rýja-svimma; Þvá, þógum, þógut: þúsund-þvál; Flá, flegin: fjörgamall-fleinn
8. ^ ^{a b c} Weak Verbs; #: Remarks on the #th Conjugation
9. ^ ^{a b} Verbs §C.-E.; C.: Irregular Verbs, D.: Verbs with the Reflexive or Reciprocal Suffix, E.: Verbs with the Negative Suffix
10. ^ ^{a b c} Strong Nouns, Pages: 1, 2, 3
11. ^ Hęrr
12. ^ Tré
13. ^ ^{a b c d e} Weak Nouns; 1: Masculine, 2: Feminine: Remarks on the 1st Declension, 3: Remarks on the Indeclinable Feminine, 4: Neuter
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Remarks on the Adjectives: Page 1: Assimilation/Dropping; Page 2: Comparison, Definiteness
15. ^ Nokkurnig - Nema, "[…] but nekkvert, nokkvort, nokkurt (answering to hvert), as an adjective."
16. ^ ^{a b c d} Hit/hinn/hin: Hillingar-Hinn; Hinn
17. ^ Hitt/hinn/hin: Hinn; Hinn-Hitta

See also

• Old Norse
• Old Swedish Grammar
• Proto-Germanic morphology

External links

• Alaric's Magic Sheet paradigm chart.