Old English grammar

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The grammar of Old English is quite different from that of Modern English, predominantly by being much more highly inflected, similar to Latin. As an old Germanic language, Old English's morphological system is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections theorized to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as umlaut.

Among living languages, Old English morphology most closely resembles that of modern Icelandic, which is among the most conservative of the Germanic languages; to a lesser extent, the Old English inflectional system is similar to that of modern High German.

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners were fully inflected with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), two grammatical numbers (singular and plural) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). First and second person personal pronouns also had dual forms for referring to groups of two people, in addition to the usual singular and plural forms.^[1] The instrumental case was somewhat rare and occurred only in the masculine and neuter singular; it could typically be replaced by the dative. Adjectives, pronouns and (sometimes) participles agreed with their antecedent nouns in case, number and gender. Finite verbs agreed with their subject in person and number.

Nouns came in numerous declensions (with deep parallels in Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit). Verbs came in nine main conjugations (seven strong and two weak), each with numerous subtypes, as well as a few additional smaller conjugations and a handful of irregular verbs. The main difference from other ancient Indo-European languages, such as Latin, is that verbs can be conjugated in only two tenses (vs. the six "tenses" – really tense/aspect combinations – of Latin), and have no synthetic passive voice (although it did still exist in Gothic).

Note that gender in nouns was grammatical, as opposed to the natural gender that prevails in modern English. That is, the grammatical gender of a given noun did not necessarily correspond its natural gender, even for nouns referring to people. For example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was feminine, se mōna (the Moon) was masculine, and þæt wīf "the woman/wife" was neuter. (Compare modern German die Sonne, der Mond, das Weib.) Pronominal usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender, when it conflicted.

Morphology

Verbs

Verbs in Old English are divided into strong or weak verbs. Strong verbs indicate tense by a change in the quality of a vowel, while weak verbs indicate tense by the addition of an ending.

Strong verbs

Further information: Germanic strong verb

Strong verbs use the Germanic form of conjugation known as ablaut. In this form of conjugation, the stem of the word changes to indicate the tense. Verbs like this persist in modern English, for example sing, sang, sung is a strong verb, as are swim, swam, swum and choose, chose, chosen. The root portion of the word changes rather than its ending. In Old English, there were seven major classes of strong verb; each class has its own pattern of stem changes. Learning these is often a challenge for students of the language, though English speakers may see connections between the old verb classes and their modern forms.

The classes had the following distinguishing features to their infinitive stems:

1. ī + 1 consonant.
2. ēo or ū + 1 consonant.
3. Originally e + 2 consonants. By the time of written Old English, many had changed. If we use C to represent any consonant, verbs in this class usually had short e + lC; short eo + rC; short i + nC/mC; or (g̣ +) short ie + lC.
4. e + 1 consonant (usually l or r, plus the verb brecan 'to break').
5. e + 1 consonant (usually a stop or a fricative).
6. a + 1 consonant.
7. Other than the above. Always a heavy root syllable (either a long vowel or short + 2 consonants), almost always a non-umlauted vowel – e.g. ō, ā, ēa, a (+ nC), ea (+ lC/rC), occ. ǣ (the latter with past in ē instead of normal ēo). Infinitive distinguishable from class 1 weak verbs by non-umlauted root vowel; from class 2 weak verbs by lack of suffix -ian. First and second preterite have identical stems, usually in ēo (occ. ē), and the infinitive and the past participle also have the same stem.

Stem Changes in Strong Verbs
Class	Root Weight	Infinitive	First Preterite	Second Preterite	Past Participle
I	heavy	ī	ā	i	i
II	heavy	ēo or ū	ēa	u	o
III	heavy	see table below
IV	light	e(+r/l)	æ	ǣ	o
V	light	e(+other)	æ	ǣ	e
VI	light	a	ō	ō	a
VII	heavy	ō, ā, ēa, a(+nC), ea(+rC/lC), occ. ǣ	ē or ēo		same as infinitive

The first preterite stem is used in the preterite, for the first and third persons singular. The second preterite stem is used for second person singular, and all persons in the plural (as well as the preterite subjunctive). Strong verbs also exhibit i-mutation of the stem in the second and third persons singular in the present tense.

The third class went through so many sound changes that it was barely recognisable as a single class. The first was a process called 'breaking'. Before <h>, and <r> + another consonant, <æ> turned into <ea>, and <e> to <eo>. Also, before <l> + another consonant, the same happened to <æ>, but <e> remained unchanged (except before combination <lh>).

The second sound-change to affect it was the influence of palatal sounds <g>, <c>, and <sc>. These turned anteceding <e> and <æ> to <ie> and <ea>, respectively.

The third sound change turned <e> to <i>, <æ> to <a>, and <o> to <u> before nasals.

Altogether, this split the third class into five sub-classes:

1. e + two consonants (apart from clusters beginning with l).
2. eo + r or h + another consonant.
3. e + l + another consonant.
4. g, c, or sc + ie + two consonants.
5. i + nasal + another consonant.

Stem Changes in Class III
Sub-class	Infinitive	First Preterite	Second Preterite	Past Participle
a	e	æ	u	o
b	eo	ea	u	o
c	e	ea	u	o
d	ie	ea	u	o
e	i	a	u	u

Regular strong verbs were all conjugated roughly the same, with the main differences being in the stem vowel. Thus stelan 'to steal' represents the strong verb conjugation paradigm.

Conjugation	Pronoun	'steal'
Infinitives		stelan
		tō stelanne
Present Indicative
	ic	stele
	þū	stilst
	hē/hit/hēo	stilð
	wē/gē/hīe	stelaþ
Past Indicative	ic	stæl
	þū	stæle
	hē/hit/hēo	stæl
	wē/gē/hīe	stælon
Present Subjunctive	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	stele
	wē/gē/hīe	stelen
Past Subjunctive	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	stǣle
	wē/gē/hīe	stǣlen
Imperative	Singular	stel
	Plural	stelaþ
Present Participle		stelende
Past Participle		stolen

Weak verbs

Further information: Germanic weak verb

Weak verbs are formed by adding alveolar (t or d) endings to the stem for the past and past-participle tenses. Some examples are love, loved or look, looked.

Originally, the weak ending was used to form the preterite of informal, noun-derived verbs such as often emerge in conversation and which have no established system of stem-change. By nature, these verbs were almost always transitive, and even today, most weak verbs are transitive verbs formed in the same way. However, as English came into contact with non-Germanic languages, it invariably borrowed useful verbs which lacked established stem-change patterns. Rather than invent and standardize new classes or learn foreign conjugations, English speakers simply applied the weak ending to the foreign bases.

The linguistic trends of borrowing foreign verbs and verbalizing nouns have greatly increased the number of weak verbs over the last 1,200 years. Some verbs that were originally strong (for example help, holp, holpen) have become weak by analogy; most foreign verbs are adopted as weak verbs; and when verbs are made from nouns (for example "to scroll" or "to water") the resulting verb is weak. Additionally, conjugation of weak verbs is easier to teach, since there are fewer classes of variation. In combination, these factors have drastically increased the number of weak verbs, so that in modern English weak verbs are the most numerous and productive form (although occasionally a weak verb may turn into a strong verb through the process of analogy, such as sneak (originally only a noun), where snuck is an analogical formation rather than a survival from Old English).

There are three major classes of weak verbs in Old English. The first class displays i-mutation in the root, and the second class none. There is also a third class explained below.

Class-one verbs with short roots exhibit gemination of the final stem consonant in certain forms. With verbs in <r> this appears as <ri> or <rg>, where <i> and <g> are pronounced [j]. Geminated <f> appears as <bb>, and that of <g> appears as <cg>. Class one verbs may receive an epenthetic vowel before endings beginning in a consonant.

Where class-one verbs have gemination, class-two verbs have <i> or <ig>, which is a separate syllable pronounced [i]. All class-two verbs have an epenthetic vowel, which appears as <a> or <o>.

In the following table, three verbs are conjugated. Swebban 'to put to sleep' is a class one verb exhibiting gemination and an epenthetic vowel. Hǣlan 'to heal' is a class-one verb exhibiting neither gemination nor an epenthetic vowel. Sīðian 'to journey' is a class-two verb.

Conjugation	Pronoun	'put to sleep'	'heal'	'journey'
Infinitives		swebban	hǣlan	sīðian
		tō swebbanne	tō hǣlanne	tō sīðianne
Present Indicative
	ic	swebbe	hǣle	sīðie
	þū	swefest	hǣlst	sīðast
	hē/hit/hēo	swefeþ	hǣlþ	sīðað
	wē/gē/hīe	swebbaþ	hǣlaþ	sīðiað
Past Indicative	ic	swefede	hǣlde	sīðode
	þū	swefedest	hǣldest	sīðodest
	hē/hit/hēo	swefede	hǣle	sīðode
	wē/gē/hīe	swefedon	hǣlon	sīðodon
Present Subjunctive	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	swebbe	hǣle	sīðie
	wē/gē/hīe	swebben	hǣlen	sīðien
Past Subjunctive	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	swefede	hǣlde	sīðode
	wē/gē/hīe	swefeden	hǣlden	sīðoden
Imperative	Singular	swefe	hǣl	sīða
	Plural	swebbaþ	hǣlaþ	sīðiað
Present Participle		swefende	hǣlende	sīðiende
Past Participle		swefed	hǣled	sīðod

During the Old English period the third class was significantly reduced; only four verbs belonged to this group: habban 'have', libban 'live', secgan 'say', and hycgan 'think'. Each of these verbs is distinctly irregular, though they share some commonalities.

Conjugation	Pronoun	'have'	'live'	'say'	'think'
Infinitive		habban	libban, lifgan	secgan	hycgan
Present Indicative
	ic	hæbbe	libbe, lifge	secge	hycge
	þū	hæfst, hafast	lifast, leofast	segst, sagast	hygst, hogast
	hē/hit/hēo	hæfð, hafað	lifað, leofað	segð, sagað	hyg(e)d, hogað
	wē/gē/hīe	habbaþ	libbað	secgaþ	hycgað
Past Indicative	(all persons)	hæfde	lifde, leofode	sægde	hog(o)de, hygde
Present Subjunctive	(all persons)	hæbbe	libbe, lifge	secge	hycge
Past Subjunctive	(all persons)	hæfde	lifde, leofode	sægde	hog(o)de, hygde
Imperative	Singular	hafa	leofa	sæge, saga	hyge, hoga
	Plural	habbaþ	libbaþ, lifgaþ	secgaþ	hycgaþ
Present Participle		hæbbende	libbende, lifgende	secgende	hycgende
Past Participle		gehæfd	gelifd	gesægd	gehogod

Preterite-present verbs

The preterite-present verbs are a class of verbs which have a present tense in the form of a strong preterite and a past tense like the past of a weak verb. These verbs derive from the subjunctive or optative use of preterite forms to refer to present or future time. For example, witan, "to know" comes from a verb which originally meant "to have seen" (cf. OE wise "manner, mode, appearance"; Latin videre "to see" from the same root). The present singular is formed from the original singular preterite stem and the present plural from the original plural preterite stem. As a result of this history, the first-person singular and third-person singular are the same in the present.

Few preterite present appear in the Old English corpus, and some are not attested in all forms.

Note that the Old English meanings of many of the verbs are significantly different than that of the modern descendants; in fact, the verbs "can, may, must" appear to have chain shifted in meaning.

Conjugation	Pronoun	'know, know how to'	'be able to, can'	'be obliged to, must'	'know'	'own'	'avail'	'dare'	'remember'	'need'	'be allowed to, may'	'grant, allow, wish'	'have use of, enjoy'
Modern Descendant		'can'	'may'	'shall'	'wit (obsolescent)'	'owe'	'dow (archaic)'	'dare'	--	--	'mote (archaic), must’	--	--
Infinitives		cunnan	magan	sculan	witan	āgan	dugan	*durran	munan	þurfan	*mōtan	unnan	*ge-/ *benugan
Present Indicative
	ic	cann	mæg	sceal	wāt	āh	deah	dearr	man	þearf	mōt	ann	geneah
	þū	canst	meaht	scealt	wāst	āhst		dearst	manst	þearft	mōst
	hē/hit/hēo	cann	mæg	sceal	wāt	āh	deah	dearr	man	þearf	mōt	ann	geneah
	wē/gē/hīe	cunnon	magon	sculon	witon	āgon	dugon	durron	munon	þurfon	mōton	unnon	genugan
Past Indicative
	ic	cūðe	meahte	sceolde	wisse, wiste	āhte	dohte	dorst	munde	þorfte	mōste	uðe	benohte
	þū	cūðest	meahtest	sceoldest	wissest, wistest	āhte	dohte	dorst	munde	þorfte	mōste	uðe	benohte
	hē/hit/hēo	cūðe	meahte	sceolde	wisse, wiste	āhte	dohte	dorst	munde	þorfte	mōste	ūðe	benohte
	wē/gē/hīe	cūðon	meahton	sceoldon	wisson, wiston							uþon
Present Subjunctive
	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	cunne	mæge	scyle, scule	wite	āge	dyge, duge	dyrre, durre	myne, mune	þyrfe, þurfe	mōte	unne
	wē/gē/hīe	cunnen	mægen	sculen	witaþ
Past Subjunctive
	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	cūðe	meahte	sceolde	wisse, wiste
	wē/gē/hīe	cūðen	meahten	sceolden

[Forms above with asterisk (*) unattested.]

Anomalous verbs

Additionally there is a further group of four verbs which are anomalous, the verbs "want" (modern "will"), "do", "go" and "be". These four have their own conjugation schemes which differ significantly from all the other classes of verb. This is not especially unusual: "want", "do", "go", and "be" are the most commonly used verbs in the language, and are very important to the meaning of the sentences in which they are used. Idiosyncratic patterns of inflection are much more common with important items of vocabulary than with rarely-used ones.

Dōn 'to do' and gān 'to go' are conjugated alike; willan 'to want' is similar outside of the present tense.

Conjugation	Pronoun	'do'	'go'	'will'
Infinitive	–	dōn	gān	willan
Present Indicative
	ic	dō	gā	wille
	þū	dēst	gǣst	wilt
	hē/hit/hēo	dēð	gǣð	wile
	wē/gē/hīe	dōð	gāð	willað
Past Indicative
	ic/hē/hit/hēo	dyde	ēode	wolde
	þū	dydest	ēodest	woldest
	wē/gē/hīe	dydon	ēodon	woldon
Present Subjunctive	(all persons)	dō	gā	wille
Past Subjunctive	(all persons)	dyde	ēode	wolde
Present Participle		dōnde	–	willende
Past Participle		gedōn	gegān	–

The verb 'to be' is actually composed of three different stems:

Conjugation	Pronoun	sindon	bēon	wesan
Infinitive	–	sindon	bēon	wesan
Present Indicative
	ic	eom	bēo	wese
	þū	eart	bist	wesst
	hē/hit/hēo	is	bið	wes(t)
	wē/gē/hīe	sind(on)	bēoð	wesað
Past Indicative
	ic	–	–	wæs
	þū	–	–	wǣre
	hē/hit/hēo	–	–	wæs
	wē/gē/hīe	–	–	wǣron
Present Subjunctive
	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	sīe	bēo	wese
	wē/gē/hīe	sīen	bēon	wesen
Past Subjunctive
	ic/þū/hē/hit/hēo	–	–	wǣre
	wē/gē/hīe	–	–	wǣren
Imperative
	(singular)	–	bēo	wes
	(plural)	–	bēoð	wesað
Present Participle		–	bēonde	wesende
Past Participle		–	gebēon	–

The present forms of wesan are almost never used. Therefore, wesan is used as the past, imperative, and present participle versions of sindon, and does not have a separate meaning. The bēon forms are usually used in reference to future actions. Only the present forms of bēon contrast with the present forms of sindon/wesan in that bēon tends to be used to refer to eternal or permanent truths, while sindon/wesan is used more commonly to refer to temporary or subjective facts. This semantic distinction was lost as Old English developed into modern English, so that the modern verb 'to be' is a single verb which takes its present indicative forms from sindon, its past indicative forms from wesan, its present subjunctive forms from bēon, its past subjunctive forms from wesan, and its imperative and participle forms from bēon.

Nouns

Old English is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. As in several other ancient Germanic languages, there are five major cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive and instrumental.

• The nominative case indicated the subject of the sentence, for example se cyning means 'the king'. It was also used for direct address. Adjectives in the predicate (qualifying a noun on the other side of 'to be') were also in the nominative.
• The accusative case indicated the direct object of the sentence, for example Æþelbald lufode þone cyning means "Æþelbald loved the king", where Æþelbald is the subject and the king is the object. Already the accusative had begun to merge with the nominative; it was never distinguished in the plural, or in a neuter noun.
• The genitive case indicated possession, for example the þæs cyninges scip is "the ship of the king" or "the king's ship". It also indicated partitive nouns.
• The dative case indicated the indirect object of the sentence, for example hringas þæm cyninge means "rings for the king" or "rings to the king". There were also several verbs that took direct objects in the dative.
• The instrumental case indicated an instrument used to achieve something, for example, lifde sweorde, "he lived by the sword", where sweorde is the instrumental form of sweord. During the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having largely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives retained separate forms for the instrumental.

The small body of evidence we have for Runic texts suggests that there may also have a been a separate locative case in early or Northumbrian forms of the language (e.g., ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ on rodi "on the Cross").^[2]

In addition to inflection for case, nouns take different endings depending on whether the noun was in the singular (for example, hring 'one ring') or plural (for example, hringas 'many rings'). Also, some nouns pluralize by way of Umlaut, and some undergo no pluralizing change in certain cases.

Nouns are also categorised by grammatical gender – masculine, feminine, or neuter. In general, masculine and neuter words share their endings. Feminine words have their own subset of endings. The plural of some declension types distinguishes between genders, e.g., a-stem masculine nominative plural stanas "stones" vs. neuter nominative plural scipu "ships" and word "words"; or i-stem masculine nominative plural sige(as) "victories" vs. neuter nominative plural sifu "sieves" and hilt "hilts".

Furthermore, Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. However, there is a great deal of overlap between the various classes of noun: they are not totally distinct from one another.

Old English language grammars often follow the common NOM-ACC-GEN-DAT-INST order used for the Germanic languages.

Strong nouns

Here are the strong declensional endings and examples for each gender:

The Strong Noun Declension
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	–	-as	–	-u/–	-u/–	-a
Accusative	–	-as	–	-u/–	-e	-a, -e
Genitive	-es	-a	-es	-a	-e	-a
Dative	-e	-um	-e	-um	-e	-um

For the '-u/–' forms above, the '-u' is used with a root consisting of a single short syllable or ending in a long syllable followed by a short syllable, while roots ending in a long syllable or two short syllables are not inflected. (A long syllable contains a long vowel or is followed by two consonants. Note also that there are some exceptions; for example, feminine nouns ending in -þu such as strengþu 'strength'.)

Example of the Strong Noun Declension for each Gender
Case	Masculine engel 'angel'		Neuter scip 'ship'		Feminine sorg 'sorrow'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	engel	englas	scip	scipu	sorg	sorga
Accusative	engel	englas	scip	scipu	sorge	sorga/sorge
Genitive	engles	engla	scipes	scipa	sorge	sorga
Dative	engle	englum	scipe	scipum	sorge	sorgum

Note the syncope of the second e in engel when an ending follows. This syncope of the vowel in the second syllable occurs with two-syllable strong nouns, which have a long vowel in the first syllable and a second syllable consisting of a short vowel and single consonant (for example, engel, wuldor 'glory', and hēafod 'head'). However, this syncope is not always present, so forms such as engelas may be seen.

Weak nouns

Here are the weak declensional endings and examples for each gender:

The Weak Noun Declension
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-a	-an	-e	-an	-e	-an
Accusative	-an	-an	-e	-an	-an	-an
Genitive	-an	-ena	-an	-ena	-an	-ena
Dative	-an	-um	-an	-um	-an	-um

Example of the Weak Noun Declension for each Gender
Case	Masculine nama 'name'		Neuter ēage 'eye'		Feminine tunge 'tongue'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	nama	naman	ēage	ēagan	tunge	tungan
Accusative	naman	naman	ēage	ēagan	tungan	tungan
Genitive	naman	namena	ēagan	ēagena	tungan	tungena
Dative	naman	namum	ēagan	ēagum	tungan	tungum

Irregular strong nouns

In addition, masculine and neuter nouns whose main vowel is short 'æ' and end with a single consonant change the vowel to 'a' in the plural (a result of the phonological phenomenon known as Anglo-Frisian brightening):

Dæg 'day' m.
Case	Singular	Plural
Nominative	dæg	dagas
Accusative	dæg	dagas
Genitive	dæges	daga
Dative	dæge	dagum

Some masculine and neuter nouns end in -e in their base form. These drop the -e and add normal endings. Note that neuter nouns in -e always have -u in the plural, even with a long vowel:

Example of the Strong Noun Declensions ending in -e
Case	Masculine ende 'end'		Neuter stȳle 'steel'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	ende	endas	stȳle	stȳlu
Accusative	ende	endas	stȳle	stȳlu
Genitive	endes	enda	stȳles	stȳla
Dative	ende	endum	stȳle	stȳlum

Nouns ending in -h lose this when an ending is added, and lengthen the vowel in compensation (this can result in compression of the ending as well):

Example of the Strong Noun Declensions ending in -h
Case	Masculine mearh 'horse'		Neuter feorh 'life'		Masculine scōh 'shoe'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	mearh	mēaras	feorh	feorh	scōh	scōs
Accusative	mearh	mēaras	feorh	feorh	scōh	scōs
Genitive	mēares	mēara	fēores	fēora	scōs	scōna
Dative	mēare	mēarum	fēore	fēorum	scō	scōm

Nouns whose stem ends in -w change this to -u or drop it in the nominative singular. (Note that this '-u/–' distinction depends on syllable weight, as for strong nouns, above.)

Example of the Strong Noun Declensions ending in -w
Case	Neuter smeoru 'grease'		Feminine sinu 'sinew'		Feminine lǣs 'pasture'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	smeoru	smeoru	sinu	sinwa	lǣs	lǣswa
Accusative	smeoru	smeoru	sinwe	sinwa, -e	lǣswe	lǣswa, -e
Genitive	smeorwes	smeorwa	sinwe	sinwa	lǣswe	lǣswa
Dative	smeorwe	smeorwum	sinwe	sinwum	lǣswe	lǣswum

A few nouns follow the -u declension, with an entirely different set of endings. The following examples are both masculine, although feminines also exist, with the same endings (for example duru 'door' and hand 'hand'). Note that the '-u/–' distinction in the singular depends on syllable weight, as for strong nouns, above.

Example of the -u Declension
Case	Masculine sunu 'son'		Masculine feld 'field'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	sunu	suna	feld	felda
Accusative	sunu	suna	feld	felda
Genitive	suna	suna	felda	felda
Dative	suna	sunum	felda	feldum

Mutating strong nouns

There are also some nouns of the consonant declension, which show i-umlaut in some forms.

Example of the Strong Noun Declensions with i-shift
Case	Masculine fōt 'foot'		Feminine hnutu 'nut'		Feminine bōc 'book'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	fōt	fēt	hnutu	hnyte	bōc	bēc
Accusative	fōt	fēt	hnutu	hnyte	bōc	bēc
Genitive	fōtes	fōta	hnyte, hnute	hnuta	bēc, bōce	bōca
Dative	fēt, fōte	fōtum	hnyte, hnute	hnutum	bēc, bōc	bōcum

Other such nouns include (with singular and plural nominative forms given):

Masculine: tōþ, tēþ 'tooth'; mann, menn 'man'; frēond, frīend 'friend'; fēond, fīend 'enemy' (cf. 'fiend')

Feminine: studu, styde 'post' (cf. 'stud'); hnitu, hnite 'nit'; āc, ǣc 'oak'; gāt, gǣt 'goat'; brōc, brēc 'leg covering' (cf. 'breeches'); gōs, gēs 'goose'; burg, byrg 'city' (cf. 'borough', '-bury' and German cities in -burg); dung, dyng 'prison' (cf. 'dungeon' by way of French and Frankish); turf, tyrf 'turf'; grūt, grȳt 'meal' (cf. 'grout'); lūs, lȳs 'louse'; mūs, mȳs 'mouse'; neaht, niht 'night' Feminine with loss of -h in some forms: furh, fyrh 'furrow' or 'fir'; sulh, sylh 'plough'; þrūh, þrȳh 'trough'; wlōh, wlēh 'fringe'. Feminine with compression of endings: cū, cȳ 'cow' (cf. dialectal plural 'kine')

Neuter: In addition, scrūd 'clothing, garment' has the umlauted dative-singular form scrȳd.

Nouns of relationship

Nouns of Relationship
Case	Masculine fæder 'father'		Masculine brōðor 'brother'		Feminine mōdor 'mother'		Feminine sweostor 'sister'		Feminine dohtor 'daughter'
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	fæder	fæd(e)ras	brōðor	(ge)brōðor	mōdor	mōdra/mōdru	sweostor	(ge)sweostor, -tru, -tra	dohtor	dohtor
Accusative	fæder	fæd(e)ras	brōðor	(ge)brōðor	mōdor	mōdra/mōdru	sweostor	(ge)sweostor, -tru, -tra	dohtor	dohtor
Genitive	fæder	fæd(e)ra	brōðor	(ge)brōðra	mōdor	mōdra	sweostor	(ge)sweostra	dohtor	dohtra
Dative	fæder	fæderum	brēðer	(ge)brōðrum	mēder	mōdrum	sweostor	(ge)sweostrum	dehter	dohtrum

Neuter nouns with -r- in the plural

Lamb 'lamb' n.
Case	Singular	Plural
Nominative	lamb	lambru
Accusative	lamb	lambru
Genitive	lambes	lambra
Dative	lambe	lambrum

Other such nouns: ǣg, ǣgru 'egg' (ancestor of the archaic/dialectical form 'ey', plural 'eyren'; the form 'egg' is a borrowing from Old Norse); bread, breadru 'crumb'; cealf, cealfru 'calf'; cild 'child' has either the normal plural cild or cildru (cf. 'children', with -en from the weak nouns); hǣmed, hǣmedru 'cohabitation'; speld, speldru 'torch'.

Adjectives

Adjectives in Old English are declined using the same categories as nouns: five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), and two numbers (singular, plural). In addition, they can be declined either strong or weak. The weak forms are used in the presence of a definite or possessive determiner, while the strong ones are used in other situations. The weak forms are identical to those for nouns, while the strong forms use a combination of noun and pronoun endings:

The Strong Adjective Declension
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	–	-e	–	-u/–	-u/–	-e, -a
Accusative	-ne	-e	–	-u/–	-e	-e, -a
Genitive	-es	-ra	-es	-ra	-re	-ra
Dative	-um	-um	-um	-um	-re	-um
Instrumental	-e	-um	-e	-um	-re	-um

For the '-u/–' forms above, the distinction is the same as for strong nouns.

Example of the Strong Adjective Declension: gōd 'good'
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	gōd	gōde	gōd	gōd	gōd	gōde, -a
Accusative	gōdne	gōde	gōd	gōd	gōde	gōde, -a
Genitive	gōdes	gōdra	gōdes	gōdra	gōdre	gōdra
Dative	gōdum	gōdum	gōdum	gōdum	gōdre	gōdum
Instrumental	gōde	gōdum	gōde	gōdum	gōdre	gōdum

Example of the Weak Adjective Declension: gōd 'good'
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	gōda	gōdan	gōde	gōdan	gōde	gōdan
Accusative	gōdan	gōdan	gōde	gōdan	gōdan	gōdan
Genitive	gōdan	gōdena	gōdan	gōdena	gōdan	gōdena
Dative	gōdan	gōdum	gōdan	gōdum	gōdan	gōdum
Instrumental	gōdan	gōdum	gōdan	gōdum	gōdan	gōdum

Note that the same variants described above for nouns also exist for adjectives. The following example shows both the æ/a variation and the -u forms in the feminine singular and neuter plural:

Example of the Strong Adjective Declension: glæd 'glad'
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	glæd	glade	glæd	gladu	gladu	glade
Accusative	glædne	glade	glæd	gladu	glade	glade
Genitive	glades	glædra	glades	glædra	glædre	glædra
Dative	gladum	gladum	gladum	gladum	glædre	gladum
Instrumental	glade	gladum	glade	gladum	glædre	gladum

The following shows an example of an adjective ending with -h:

Example of the Strong Adjective Declension: hēah 'high'
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	hēah	hēa	hēah	hēa	hēa	hēa
Accusative	hēane	hēa	hēah	hēa	hēa	hēa
Genitive	hēas	hēara	hēas	hēara	hēare	hēara
Dative	hēam	hēam	hēam	hēam	hēare	hēam
Instrumental	hēa	hēam	hēa	hēam	hēare	hēam

The following shows an example of an adjective ending with -w:

Example of the Strong Adjective Declension: gearu 'ready'
Case	Masculine		Neuter		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	gearu	gearwe	gearu	gearu	gearu	gearwe
Accusative	gearone	gearwe	gearu	gearu	gearwe	gearwe
Genitive	gearwes	gearora	gearwes	gearora	gearore	gearora
Dative	gearwum	gearwum	gearwum	gearwum	gearore	gearwum
Instrumental	gearwe	gearwum	gearwe	gearwum	gearore	gearwum

Determiners

Old English had two main determiners: se, which could function as both 'the' or 'that', and þes for 'this'.

the/that
Case	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Plural
Nominative	se	þæt	sēo	þā
Accusative	þone	þæt	þā	þā
Genitive	þæs	þæs	þǣre	þāra, þǣra
Dative	þǣm	þǣm	þǣre	þǣm, þām
Instrumental	þȳ, þon	þȳ, þon	–	–

Modern English 'that' descends from the neuter nominative/accusative form,^[3] and 'the' from the masculine nominative form, with 's' replaced analogously by the 'th' of the other forms.^[4] The feminine nominative form was probably the source of Modern English 'she.'^[5]

this
Case	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Plural
Nominative	þes	þis	þēos	þās
Accusative	þisne	þis	þās	þās
Genitive	þisses	þisses	þisse, þisre	þisra
Dative	þissum	þissum	þisse, þisre	þissum
Instrumental	þȳs	þȳs	–	–

Pronouns

Most pronouns are declined by number, case and gender; in the plural form most pronouns have only one form for all genders. Additionally, Old English pronouns reserve the dual form (which is specifically for talking about groups of two things, for example "we two" or "you two" or "they two"). These were uncommon even then, but remained in use throughout the period.

First Person
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	ic, īc	wē	wit
Accusative	mec, mē	ūsic, ūs	uncit, unc
Genitive	mīn	ūre	uncer
Dative	mē	ūs	unc

Second Person
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	þū	gē	git
Accusative	þēc, þē	ēowic, ēow	incit, inc
Genitive	þīn	ēower	incer
Dative	þē	ēow	inc

Third Person
Case	Singular			Plural
	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.
Nominative	hē	hit	hēo	hiē m., hēo f.
Accusative	hine	hit	hīe	hiē m., hīo f.
Genitive	his	his	hire	hiera m., heora f.
Dative	him	him	hire	him

Many of the forms above bear strong resemblances to their contemporary English language equivalents: for instance in the genitive case ēower became "your", ūre became "our", mīn became "mine".

Prepositions

Prepositions (like Modern English words by, for, and with) often follow the word which they govern, in which case they are called postpositions. Also, so that the object of a preposition was marked in the dative case, a preposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence, even appended to the verb. e.g. "Scyld Scefing sceathena threatum meodo setla of teoh" means "Scyld took mead settles of (from) enemy threats." The infinitive is not declined.

The following is a list of prepositions in the Old English language. Many of them, particularly those marked "etc.", are found in other variant spellings. Prepositions may govern the accusative, genitive, dative or instrumental cases - the question of which is beyond the scope of this article.

Prepositions
Old English	Definition	Notes
æfter	after; along, through, during; according to, by means of; about.	Ancestor of modern after Related to Dutch achter = behind, after
ǣr	before	Related to modern German eher and Dutch eer, ancestor of modern ere
æt	at, to, before, next, with, in, for, against; unto, as far as.	Ancestor of modern at
and	against, before, on.
andlang	along	Ancestor of modern along
bæftan	after, behind; without.
be, bī	by, near to, to, at, in, on, upon, about, with; of, from, about, touching, concerning; for, because of, after, by, through, according to; beside, out of.	Related to modern German bei, ancestor of modern by
befōran	before.	Ancestor of modern before
begeondan	beyond.	Ancestor of modern beyond
behindan	behind.	Ancestor of modern behind
beinnan	in, within.
beneoðan	beneath.	Ancestor of modern beneath
betweonum, betweox, etc.	betwixt, between, among, amid, in the midst.	Ancestors of modern between and betwixt respectively
bīrihte	near.
būfan	above.	Ancestor of modern above through compound form onbúfan
būtan	out of, against; without, except.
eāc	with, in addition to, besides.	Related to modern German auch
for	for, on account of, because of, with, by; according to; instead of.	Ancestor of modern for
fōr, fōre	before.
fram	from; concerning, about, of.	Ancestor of modern from
gemang	among	Ancestor of modern among
geond	through, throughout, over, as far as, among, in, after, beyond.	Ancestor of modern yonder through comparative form geondra
in	in, on; into, to.	Ancestor of modern in
innan	in, into, within, from within.
intō	into	Ancestor of modern into
mid	with, against	Ancestor of modern amid through related form onmiddan
neāh	near	Ancestor of modern nigh
nefne	except
of	of, from, out of, off.	Ancestor of modern of and off
ofer	above, over; upon, on; throughout; beyond, more than	Ancestor of modern over
on	on; in, at;	Ancestor of modern on
onbūtan	about	Ancestor of modern about
ongeagn, etc.	opposite, against; towards; in reply to.	Ancestor of modern again
onuppan	upon, on.
oþ	to, unto, up to, as far as.
samod	with, at.
tō	to, at.	Ancestor of modern to
tōeācan	in addition to, besides.
tōforan	before.
tōgeagnes	towards, against.
tōmiddes	in the midst of, amidst.
tōweard	toward.	Ancestor of modern toward
þurh	through	Related to modern German durch, ancestor of modern through
ufenan	above, besides.
under	under.	Ancestor of modern under
underneoþan	underneath.	Ancestor of modern underneath
uppan	upon, on.	Not the ancestor of modern upon, which came from "up on".
ūtan	without, outside of	Related to modern German außen, außer and Swedish utan
wið	towards, to; with, against; opposite to; by, near.	Ancestor of modern with
wiðæftan	behind.
wiðer	against.	Related to modern German wider
wiðinnan	within.	Ancestor of modern within
wiðforan	before.
wiðoutan	without, outside of.	Ancestor of modern without
ymb	about, by.	Related to German um and Latin ambi
ymbūtan	about, around; concerning.

Syntax

Old English syntax was similar in many ways to that of modern English. However, there were some important differences. Some were simply consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection – e.g., word order was generally freer. But there are also differences in the default word order, and in the construction of negation, questions, relative clauses and subordinate clauses.

In addition:

• The default word order was verb-second and more like modern German than modern English.
• There was no do-support in questions and negatives.
• Multiple negatives could stack up in a sentence, and intensified each other (negative concord).
• Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "When X, Y" did not use a wh-type word for the conjunction, but instead used interrogative pronouns asa word related to "when", but instead a th-type correlative conjunction (e.g. þā X, þā Y in place of "When X, Y").

Word order

There was some flexibility in word order of Old English, since the heavily inflected nature of nouns, adjectives and verbs often indicated the relationships among clause arguments. Scrambling of constituents was common, and even sometimes scrambling within a constituent occurred, as in Beowulf line 708 wrāþum on andan:

wrāþum	on	andan
hostile.DAT.SG	on/with	malice.DAT.SG
"with hostile malice"

Something similar occurs in line 713 in sele þām hēan "in the high hall" (lit. "in hall the high").

Extraposition of constituents out of larger constituents is common even in prose, as in the well-known tale of Cynewulf and Cyneheard, which begins

Hēr Cynewulf benam Sigebryht his rīces ond Westseaxna wiotan for unryhtum dǣdum, būton Hamtūnscīre; ...

(word-for-word) "Here Cynewulf deprived Sigebryht of his kingdom and West Saxons' counselors for unright deeds, except Hampshire"

(translated) "Here Cynewulf and the West Saxon counselors deprived Sigebryht of his kingdom, other than Hampshire, for unjust actions"

Note how the words ond Westseaxna wiotan "and the West Saxon counselors" (lit. "and (the) counselors of (the) West Saxons") have been extraposed from (moved out of) the compound subject they belong in, in a way that would be totally impossible in modern English. Case marking helps somewhat: wiotan "counselors" can be nominative or accusative but definitely not genitive, which is the case of rīces "kingdom" and the case governed by benam "deprived"; hence, Cynewulf can't possibly have deprived Sigebryht of the West Saxon counselors, as the order suggests.

Main clauses in Old English tend to have a verb-second (V2) order, where the verb is the second constituent in a sentence, regardless of what comes first. There are echoes of this in modern English, e.g. "Hardly did he arrive when ...", "Never can it be said that ...", "Over went the boat", "Ever onward marched the weary soldiers ...", "Then came a loud sound from the sky above". In Old English, however, it was much more extensive, much as in modern German. Note that if the subject appears first, this yields an SVO order; but it can also yield orders such as OVS, CVSO, etc.

In subordinate clauses, however, the word order is completely different, with verb-final constructions the norm – again as in modern German. Furthermore, in poetry, all these rules were frequently broken. In Beowulf, for example, main clauses frequently have verb-initial or verb-final order, and subordinate clauses often have verb-second order. (However, in clauses introduced by þā, which can mean either "when" or "then" and where word order is crucial for telling the difference, the normal word order is nearly always followed.)

Those linguists who work within the Chomskyan transformational grammar paradigm often believe that it is more accurate to describe Old English (and other Germanic languages with the same word-order patterns, e.g. modern German) as having underlying subject-object-verb (SOV) ordering. According to this theory, all sentences are initially generated using this order, but then in main clauses the verb is moved back to the V2 position (technically, the verb undergoes V-to-T raising). This is said to explain the fact that Old English allows inversion of subject and verb as a general strategy for forming questions, while modern English only uses this strategy with auxiliary verbs and main-verb "to be" (and occasionally main-verb "to have", especially in British English), requiring do-support in other cases.

Questions

Because of its similarity with Old Norse, it is believed that most of the time the word order of Old English changed when asking a question, from SVO to VSO; i.e. swapping the verb and the subject. While many purport that Old English had free word order, this is not quite true and there were conventions for the positioning of subject, object and verb in the clause.

"I am..." becomes "Am I..."

"Ic eom..." becomes "Eom ic..."

Relative, subordinate clauses

Old English did not use forms equivalent to "who, when, where" in relative clauses (as in "The man who I saw") or subordinate clauses ("When I got home, I went to sleep").

Instead, relative clauses used one of the following:

1. An invariable complementizer þe
2. The demonstrative pronoun se, sēo, þat
3. The combination of the two, as in se þe

Preposition-fronting ("The man with whom I spoke") did not normally occur.

Subordinate clauses tended to use correlative conjunctions, e.g.

Þā ic hām ēode, þā slēp ic.

(word-for-word) "Then I home went, then slept I."

(translated) "When I went home, I slept."

The word order usually distinguished the subordinate clause (with verb-final order) from the main clause (with verb-second word order).

The equivalents of "who, when, where" were used only as interrogative pronouns and indefinite pronouns, as in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit.

Besides þā ... þā ..., other correlative conjunctions occurred, often in pairs of identical words, e.g.:

• þǣr X, þǣr Y: "Where X, Y"
• þanon X, þanon Y: "Whence (from where) X, Y"
• þider X, þider Y: "Whither (to where) X, Y"
• þēah (þe) X, þēah Y: "Although X, Y"
• þenden X, þenden Y: "While X, Y"
• þonne X, þonne Y: "Whenever X, Y"
• þæs X, þæs Y: "As/after/since X, Y"
• þȳ X, þȳ Y: "The more X, the more Y"

Phonology

Main article: Old English phonology

The phonology of Old English is necessarily somewhat speculative, since it is preserved purely as a written language. Nevertheless, there is a very large corpus of Old English, and the written language apparently indicates phonological alternations quite faithfully, so it is not difficult to draw certain conclusions about the nature of Old English phonology.

See also

• Middle English
• Old English phonology

Notes

1. ^ Peter S. Baker (2003). "Pronouns". The Electronic Introduction to Old English. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/inflpron.html. 
2. ^ Page, An Introduction to English Runes, Boydell 1999, p. 230
3. ^ "That". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=that. Retrieved 28 June 2010. 
4. ^ "The". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=the. Retrieved 28 June 2010. 
5. ^ "She". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=she. Retrieved 28 June 2010. 

References

• Moore, Samuel, and Thomas A. Knott. The Elements of Old English. 1919. Ed. James R. Hulbert. 10th ed. Ann Arbor, Michigan: George Wahr Publishing Co., 1958.
• The Magic Sheet, one page color PDF summarizing Old English declension, from Peter S. Baker, inspired by Moore and Marckwardt's 1951 Historical Outlines of English Sounds and Inflections
• J. Bosworth & T.N. Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: Germanic Lexicon Project

Further reading

• Brunner, Karl (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
• Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Mitchell, Bruce & Robinson, Fred (2001) A Guide to Old English; 6th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing ISBN 0-631-22636-2
• Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English Grammar (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.