Maghrebis

Maghrebian People
مغاربه - M'ɣarba
ⵎⴰⴳⵕⵉⴱⵉ

Total population
~98 Millions
Regions with significant populations
North Africa 87,979,238
Algeria 34,994,937  Morocco 31,968,361 [1]  Tunisia 10,629,186 ~10 Millions [2][3][4]  Libya 6,597,960  Mauritania 3,281,634 Western Sahara 507,160
Languages
official: Arabic • Berber
Religion
Mostly Muslims Christianity, Atheism, Judaism
Related ethnic groups
Mediterranean race • Arabs
Footnotes
Population statistics from the world factbook (July 2011 pop est.)

Maghrebis or Maghrebian people or Maghrebians are the inhabitants of the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Mauritania).

Origins

The inhabitants of the region are predominantly "Arab-Berbers" but this term implies a complete fusion of the two groups which is not the case. Whereas Arabs and Berbers, united through Islam are the main ethnic and cultural elements, it is important to bear in mind that over the centuries the Maghreb has been a melting-pot of many other ethnic groups and cultures. Before the Arab conquest Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines colonized the Maghreb and contributed to the development of its culture. Later, moriscos and muladies, that is, indigenous Spaniards who had earlier converted to the Muslim faith and were fleeing, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, from the Catholic Reconquista settled to the Maghreb. Among West Asians are Turks who came over with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. A small Turkish descended population exists, particularly in Tunisia and Algeria. Other European contributions included French, Italians, and others captured by the corsairs and then turned into slaves.^[5]

Nowadays, a majority of the current population in the Maghreb consider themselves generally Arab in identity, regardless of mixed ethnic or linguistic heritage. There are significant non-Arab or non-Arab identifying populations in the region and most important of the non-Arab populations found throughout the Maghreb, particularly in Morocco and Algeria, are the Berbers. They represented the majority of the pre-Islamic population. After the arrival of Islamic Arabs, Berbers assimilated in large numbers to Arab or mixed Arab-Berber ethnic identities.

Historically the Maghreb was also home to significant Jewish communities, including the Maghrebim Jews, who predated the 7th century introduction and conversion of the majority of Berbers to Islam. Under the Almohad dynasty rule in the 12th century, the Jews were forced to convert en masse to Islam.^[6] Later largely augmented by Spanish Sephardi Jews, fleeing the Spanish Catholic Reconquista, established a presence in North Africa, chiefly in the urban trading centers. They have contributed to the wider population through conversion and assimilation. Many Sephardic Jews emigrated to North America in the early 20th century or to France and Israel later in the 20th century.

On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are large communities of black populations, sometimes called Haratin, who are orally identify themselves as the original inhabitants of southern oasis.

Religion

Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in the Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century common era, the area had become a center of Latin-speaking Christianity. Both Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. The region produced figures such as Christian Church writer Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian Church martyrs or leading figures such as St Cyprian of Carthage (+ 258); Saint Monica; her son the philosopher St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); and St Julia of Carthage (5th century).

The domination of Christianity ended when Arab invasions brought Islam in 647. Carthage fell in 698 and the remainder of the region followed in subsequent decades. Gradual Islamization proceeded, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 9th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active, with relations continuing with Rome. As late as Pope Benedict VII (974-983) reign, a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. Evidence of Christianity in the region then faded through the 10th century.

During the 7th century, the region's peoples began their nearly total conversion to Islam. There is a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow the Sunni Maliki school. Small Ibadi communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating marabouts and saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of "Sidi"s, showing places named after the marabouts. Like some other religious traditions, this has substantially decreased over the 20th century. A network of zaouias traditionally helped proliferate basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.

Culture

Main articles: Arabic music, Berber music, Berber cuisine, and Arab cuisine

Diaspora

France

According to Michel Tribalat, a researcher at INED, there were 3.5 million people of Maghrebi origin (with at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia) living in France in 2005 corresponding to 5.8% of the total French metropolitan population (60.7 millions in 2005).^[7] Maghrebis have settled mainly in the industrial regions in France, especially in the Paris region. Many famous French people like Edith Piaf^[8], Isabelle Adjani, Arnaud Montebourg, Alain Bashung, Dany Boon and many others have Maghrebi ancestry.

Below is a table of population of Maghrebi origin in France, numbers are in thousands:

Country	1999	2005	% 1999/2005	% French population (60.7 millions in 2005)
Algeria	1,577	1,865	+18.3%	3.1%
Immigrants	574	679
Born in France	1,003	1,186
Morocco	1,005	1,201	+19.5%	2.0%
Immigrants	523	625
Born in France	482	576
Tunisia	417	458	+9.8%	0.8%
Immigrants	202	222
Born in France	215	236
Total Maghreb	2,999	3,524	+17.5%	5.8%
Immigrants	1 299	1 526		2.5%
Born in France	1 700	1 998		3.3%

In 2005, the percentage of young people under 18 of maghrebi origin (at least one immigrant parent) was about 7% in Metropolitan France, 12% in Greater Paris and above 20% in French département of Seine-Saint-Denis.^[9][10]

2005 %	Seine-Saint-Denis	Val-de-Marne	Val-d'Oise	Lyon	Paris	France
Total Maghreb	22.0%	13.2%	13.0%	13.0%	12.1%	6.9%

According to other sources between 5 and 8 million people of Maghrebin origin live in France.^[11][12]

Anthropology, Genetics and Linguistics

Various disciplines shed light on the origin of the Northwest-Africans (Berbers and Arabs).

Physical anthropology

Northwest-Africans are defined as Mediterraneans with moderate Alpinid and Nordic elements.^[13] A significant proportion of the Rif Berbers, Kabyles and Chouias have blue or green eyes, a percentage sometimes higher than that found in Sicilians or Spaniards.^[14]

Genetic evidence

The genetic proximity observed between the Northwest-Africans and Southern Europeans is due to the fact that both these groups shared a common ancestor either in the Upper Paleolithic, in the Neolithic or alternatively during history with the invasion and the occupation during nearly seven centuries of the Iberian Peninsula by Moorish troops.^[15]

Y-chromosome DNA

The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be mainly Modulated by geography, The Y-DNA Haplogroups E3b and J, which are so common among the population of North African and the Middle East, Haplogroups E3b and J, are the most widespread among North African groups especially E1b1b1b (E-M81, formerly E3b1b) which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa. In some parts of Morocco E1b1b1b can peak at 80% of the population. Followed by Haplogroup J especially J1^[16] [1] , which is typically Middle Eastern which can reach frequencies of 35% in the region,^[17][18] and has its highest density founded in the Southwestern Arabian Peninsula,^[18] Followed by Haplogroup R1^[19] which has been observed in North African though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA Haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arab and Berber-speakers.

The Northwest-African Y chromosome pool (including both Berber and Arab populations) may be summarized as follows where only two haplogroups E1b1b and J comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes:^{[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]}

• E1b1b (mainly E-M81) (50-100 %)
• J (mainly J1-M267) (0-45%)
• R1b (0-15%)
• Sub-Saharan and other haplogroups (0-8%)

E1b1b1b (E-M81) is the most common Y haplogroup among North African Arabs and Berbers dominated by its sub-clade E-M183. It is thought to have originated in North Africa 5,600 years ago.^[23][24] Colloquially referred to as the "Berber marker" for its prevalence among Mozabite, Middle Atlas, Kabyle and other Berber groups, E-M81 is also quite common among North African Arab groups (45% in Oran).^[25] It can reach frequencies of up to 80% in the Maghreb.

Regarding J1-M267, according to a recent study in 2011 about Tunisia, it is significantly more abundant in the urban (31.3%) than in the rural total population (2.5%). According to the authors, these results could be explained supposing that Arabization in Tunisia was a military enterprise, therefore, mainly driven by men that displaced native Berbers to geographically marginal areas but that frequently married Berber women.^[27]

Population	Nb	A/B	E(xE1b1b1)	E1b1b1	E1b1b1a	E1b1b1b	E1b1b1c	F	K	G	I	J1	J2	R1a	R1b-M269	Other	Study
1 Algeria/Oran	102	0	7.9%	0	5.9%	45.1%	0	0	0	0	0	22.5%	4.9%	1%	11.8%	1%	Robino et al. (2008)[28]
2 Algeria/Algiers	35	0	2.9%	0	11.4%	42.9%	0	11.8%	2.9%	0	0	22.9%	5.7%	0	0	0	Arredi et al. (2004)[29]
3 Algeria/Tizi Ouzou	19	0	0	0	0	47.4%	10.5%	10.5%	0	0	0	15.8%	0	0	15.8%	0	Arredi et al. (2004)
4 Tunisia/Tunis	148	0	2%	3.4%	5.4%	37.8%	2.7%	4.7%	0.7%	0	0	32.4%	3.4%	0.7%	6.1%	0.7%	Arredi et al. (2004)
5 Tunisia	52	0	0	9.6%	15.4%	32.7%	0	1.9%	1.9%	0	0	34.6%	3.8%	0	0	0	Onofri et al. (2008)
6 Tunisia/Bou Omrane	40	0	5%	0	5%	87.5%	0	2.5%	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	Ennafaa et al. (2011)[30]
7 Tunisia/Bou Saad	40	0	0	0	0	92.5%	0	0	0	0	0	5%	0	0	0	2.5%	Ennafaa et al. (2011)
8 Tunisia/Jerbian Arabs	46	2.2%	0	0	15.2%	60.9%	4.3%	0	0	0	0	8.7%	2.2%	4.3%	2.2%	0	Ennafaa et al. (2011)
9 Tunisia/Jerbian Berbers	47	0	0	0	17%	76.6%	0	4.25%	2.1%	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	Ennafaa et al. (2011)
10 Tunisia/Chenini–Douiret Berbers	27	0	0	0	0	100%	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011)[31]
11 Tunisia/Sened Berbers	35	0	0	0	0	65.7%	0	2.9%	0	0	0	31.4%	0	0	0	0	Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011)
12 Tunisia/Jradou Berbers	32	0	0	0	0	100%	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011)
13 Tunisia/Andalusian Zaghouan	32	0	0	0	3.1%	40.6%%	0	9.4%	0	0	0	43.8%	3.1%	0	0	0	Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011)
14 Tunisia/Cosmopolitan Tunis	33	0	0	3.0%	6.0%	54.5%%	3.0%	6.0%	0	3.0%	0	24.2%	0	0	0	0	Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011)
15 Morocco	221	0	6.4%	4.1%	6.8%	65%	0	0.9%	1.8%	0.9%	0.5%	5%	4.1%	0	4.1%	0	Fregel et al. (2009)
16 Morocco	51	3.9%	5.9%	5.9%	5.9%	54.9%	0	0	0	0	0	19.60%	0	0	3.9%	0	Onofri et al. (2008)
17 Morocco/Amizmiz Valley	33	3%	6.1%	0	3%	84.8%	3%	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	Alvarez et al. (2009)
18 Sahrawi	89	0	20.2%	0	0	59.6%	0	0	0	0	0	20.2%	0	0	0	0	Fregel et al. (2009)

Mitochondrial DNA

Many studies^{[32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]} have attempted to describe the genetic diversity of Northwest-African populations, evaluating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation and the results may be summarized as follows (data for 536 individuals from 9 populations : Morocco (Asni, Bouhria, Figuig, Souss), Algeria (Mozabites), Tunisia (Chenini-Douiret, Sened, Matmata, Jerba)^[15]):

• Total Eurasian lineages (H, HV0, HV, R0, J, T, U (without U6), K, N1, N2, X) : 50-90% with an average of about 5/8
• Total sub-Saharan lineages (L0, L1, L2, L3, L4-L5) : 3-50% with an average of about 2/8
• Total North African lineages (U6, M1) : 0-35% with an average of about 1/8

The Northwest-African mtDna pool is characterized by an "overall high frequency of Western Eurasian haplogroups, a somehow lower frequency of sub-Saharan L lineages, and a significant (but differential) presence of North African haplogroups U6 and M1."^[15] According to Cherni et al. 2009 "the post-Last glacial maximum expansion originating in Iberia not only led to the resettlement of Europe but also of North Africa".^[44]

According to a Ottoni et al. 2010, besides the "autochthonous" South-Saharan component, the maternal pool of Northern Africa appears to be characterized by at least two other major components: (i) a Levantine contribution (i.e. haplogroups U6 and M1), associated with the return to Africa around 45 kya, and (ii) a more recent West European input associated with the postglacial expansion.^[45]

Until recently, some papers suggested that the distribution of the main L haplogroups in North Africa was mainly due to trans-Saharan slave trade.^[46] However in September 2010, a thorough study about Berber mtDNA by Frigi et al. concluded that most of L haplogroups were much older and introduced by an ancient African gene flow around 20,000 years ago.^[47]

Autosomal DNA

In a recent study by Jun Z. Li et al. 2008 that studied 938 unrelated individuals from 51 populations of the Human Genome Diversity Panel at 650,000 SNPs they found that "the Mozabite people from the northern Sahara bear contributions from sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and Europe; this group in fact originates from the Middle East." (on average 55% Middle East, 25% European and 20% Sub-saharan).^[48]

Influences on Europe and Latin America

According to a study in 2011, almost all Southern Europeans have inherited 1%–3% Sub-Saharan ancestry (3.2% in Portugal, 2.9% in Sardinia, 2.7% in Southern Italy, 2.4% in Spain and 1.1% in Northern Italy) with an average mixture date of around 55 generations ago, "consistent with North African gene flow at the end of the Roman Empire and subsequent Arab migrations".^[49]

Iberia

In the Iberian Peninsula, North African male haplogroups, especially E1b1b1b (E-M81), E1b1b1a-b (M78 derived chromosomes showing the rare DYS439 allele 10) and a subset of J1 (M267 derived),^[50] are found in significant amounts with an average frequency of about 7-8% in the peninsula with frequencies surpassing 10% in some regions, like 18.6% in Cantabria.^{[51][52][53][54]}

Historically introduced NW African types in Italy and Iberia (Capelli et al. (2009))

Sample	N	E1b1b1b	E1b1b1a-b (DYS439 allele 10)	J1 (subset)	Total %
Peninsular Italy	915	0.8	0.3	0.7	1.7
Sicily	93	2.2	2.2	3.2	7.5
Spain	717	5.2	1	1.5	7.7
Portugal	659	5	0.3	1.8	7.1
Iberia	1376	5.1	0.7	1.7	7.4

As an exceptional case in Europe, E-M81 has also been observed at 40% the Pasiegos from Cantabria.^[55]

Concerning the level of male genetic admixture in Iberia, an important study by Adams et al. 2008 that analysed 1140 individuals in Iberia found a mean North African admixture of 10.6%, with wide geographical variation, ranging from 2.5% in Catalonia, 11.8% in North Portugal, 16.1% in South Portugal, 20.8% in Galicia to 21.7% in Northwest Castile.^[53][56]

Iberian region	%NW African male admixture
Castile, NorthWest	21.7%
Minorca	21.5%
Galicia	20.8%
Extremadura	19%
Andalucia, West	16.7%
Portugal, South	16.1%
Valencia	12.8%
Portugal, North	11.8%
Asturias	10.5%
Castile, NorthEast	9.3%
Majorca	6.6%
Aragon	4.8%
Ibiza	3.8%
Andalucia, East	2.4%
Catalonia	2.3%
Castilla	0.9%

MtDna (female lineages) genetic studies on Iberian populations also show that North African mitochondrial DNA sequences (haplogroup U6) are found at much higher levels than those generally observed elsewhere in Europe. Although the overall absolute frequency of U6 is low (2.4%), this signals a possible current North African ancestry proportion of 8%–9%, because U6 is not a common lineage in North Africa itself. U6 reaches its highest frequency in North Portugal at about 4-6% where Gonzalez et al. 2003 estimated a possible North African ancestry proportion of 27%.^[57][58][59]

Iberia is also the region in Europe with the highest frequency of the female mediated mtDNA haplogroup L of Sub-Saharan origin, likely a result of Berber and Arab colonization or African slave trade. Pereira et al. 2005, who analysed 1045 Iberian individuals, found sub-Saharan mtDNA L haplogroups at rates of 11.38% in south Portugal, 5.02% in Center Portugal, 3.21% in North Portugal and 3.26% in Galicia.^[57] According to Alvarez et al. 2010 who found L haplogroups at a rate of 4.70% in the Spanish province of Zamora, "as the Hts found in the area are also shared with North African populations, we cannot discard the possibility that these lineages derived from the North African Muslim permanence in the Iberian Peninsula".^[60] In another study, Casas et al. 2006 extracted DNA from human remains that were exhumed from historic burial sites in Al-Andalus, Spain (between 12th-13th century). The frequency of Sub-Saharan lineages detected in the medieval samples was 14.6% and 8.3% in the present population of Priego de Cordoba. The authors suggest both the Muslim occupation, and prehistoric migrations before the Muslim occupation would have been the source of these lineages.^[61] Brehm at al. 2003 also found a significant Sub-Saharan imprint in the Autonomous regions of Portugal, with L haplogroups constituting about 13% of the lineages in Madeira and 3.4 % in the Azores.

Iberian region/NW African mtDna > 2%	N	%U6	%L	Total	Study
Portugal, Alcacer do Sal	50	6.00%	22.00%	28.00%	Pereira 2010[62]
Spain, Canary islands (Avg)	300	14.00%	6.60%	20.60%	Brehm 2003[63]
Portugal, Madeira	155	3.90%	12.90%	16.80%	Brehm 2003
Portugal, South	123	1.63%	11.38%	13.01%	Pereira 2005[64]
Portugal, South	203	0.49%	10.84%	11.33%	Achilli 2007[65]
Portugal, Coruche	160	0.62%	8.7%	9.32%	Pereira 2010
Spain, Priego de Cordoba	108	0.93%	8.33%	9.26%	Casas 2006[66]
Portugal, Center	203	2.46%	6.40%	8.87%	Achilli 2007
Portugal, North	187	5.35%	3.21%	8.56%	Pereira 2005
South Iberian Peninsula	310	0.65%	7.42%	8.07%	Casas 2006
Portugal, Center	239	2.51%	5.02%	7.53%	Pereira 2005
Portugal, North	188	4.26%	3.19%	7.45%	Achilli 2007
Spain, Galicia	92	2.17%	3.26%	5.43%	Pereira 2005
Spain, Zamora	214	0.47%	4.67%	5.14%	Alvarez 2010[67]
Portugal, Açores	179	1.70%	3.40%	5.10%	Brehm 2003
Spain, NorthWest	216	1.39%	3.70%	5.09%	Achilli 2007
Spain, Center	148	4.05%	0.68%	4.73%	Achilli 2007
Spain, NorthEast	118	1.69%	2.54%	4.24%	Pereira 2005
Spain, multiple regions	312	1.28%	2.88%	4.16%	CarlosAlvarez 2007[68]
Portugal, Pias	75	0.00%	3.9%	3.9%	Pereira 2010
Spain, Andalusia	114	1.75%	1.75%	3.51%	Achilli 2007
Spain, Leon	61	1.64%	1.64%	3.28%	Pereira 2005
Spain, Andalusia	65	1.54%	1.54%	3.08%	Pereira 2005
Spain, NorthEast	179	1.12%	1.68%	2.79%	Achilli 2007
Spain, Castile	38	2.63%	0.00%	2.63%	Pereira 2005
Spain, Balearic islands	231	0.00%	2.16%	2.16%	Picornell 2005[69]

Canary Islands

In Canary Islands, a study by Nicole Maca-Meyer in 2003 found mtDna haplogroup U6 at rate of 14% in the present-day Canary Islands populations reflecting the Berber origin of the Guanches, the aboriginal population of the Canary Islands. In this study they compared aboriginal Guanche mtDNA (collected from Canarian archaeological sites) to that of today's Canarians and concluded that, "despite the continuous changes suffered by the population (Spanish colonization, slave trade), aboriginal mtDNA lineages constitute a considerable proportion [42–73%] of the Canarian gene pool".^[70] MtDNA haplogroup L were also found at rate of 6.6%^[71] and E-M81 at a rate of 8.28% with frequencies over 10% in the three largest islands of Tenerife (10.68%), Gran Canaria (11.54%) and Fuerteventura (13.33%). According to Fregel et al. 2009 the presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages, and also other relatively abundant markers (E-M78 and J-M267) from the same region in the indigenous Guanche population, "strongly points to that area [North Africa] as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors". In this study, they estimated that, based on Y-chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, the relative female and male indigenous Guanche contributions to the present-day Canary Islands populations were respectively of 41.8% and 16.1%.^[72]

Canary Islands/NW African mtDna	N	%U6	%L	Total	Study
La Gomera	46	50.01%	10.86%	60.87%	Fregel 2009[73]
El Hierro	32	21.88%	12.49%	34.37%	Fregel 2009
Lanzarote	49	20.40%	8.16%	28.56%	Fregel 2009
Gran Canaria	80	11.25%	10%	21.25%	Fregel 2009
Tenerife	174	12.09%	7.45%	19.54%	Fregel 2009
La Palma	68	17.65%	1.47%	19.12%	Fregel 2009
Fuerteventura	42	16.66%	2.38%	19.04%	Fregel 2009

An autosomal study in 2011 found an average Northwest African influence of about 17% in Canary Islanders with a wide interindividual variation ranging from 0% to 96%. According to the authors, the substantial Northwest African ancestry found for Canary Islanders supports that, despite the aggressive conquest by the Spanish in the 15th century and the subsequent immigration, genetic footprints of the first settlers of the Canary Islands persist in the current inhabitants. Paralleling mtDNA findings, the largest average Northwest African contribution was found for the samples from La Gomera.^[74]

Canary Islands	N	Average NW African ancestry
La Gomera	7	42.50%
Fuerteventura	10	21.60%
La Palma	7	21.00%
El Hierro	7	19.80%
Lanzarote	13	16.40%
Tenerife	30	14.30%
Gran Canaria	30	12.40%
Total Canary Islanders	104	17.40%

Italy

In Sicily, the contribution of North African populations is estimated to be about 6%-8% which shows a "genetic affinity between Sicily and North Africa".^[54][75] In Italy,^[76] North African haplogroups were found especially in a region of Southern Italy (East Campania, Northwest Apulia, Lucera) at frequency of 4.7% due to Frederick II’s relocation of Sicilian Muslims in the city of Lucera in the 13th century.^[54] Haplogroup U6 have also been detected in Sicily and Southern Italy at very low levels.^[77]

Latin America

As a consequence of Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Latin America, North African haplogroups are also found throughout Latin America especially in Brazil and Cuba where frequencies surpass generally 5%.^[78][79][80] and among Hispanic men in USA.^[81]

According to Fregel et al. (2009), the fact that male North African E-M81 and female U6 lineages from the Canaries have been detected in Cuba and Iberoamerica, demonstrates that Canary Islanders with indigenous Guanche ancestors actively participated in the American colonization.^[82]

Other regions

In other countries, North African haplogroups can be found in France, Sudan, Somalia, Jordan (4%),^[83] Lebanon and amongst Sephardi Jews.

Linguistics

The Maghreb have always been a multilingual region. Two thousand years ago, Punic, Latin and Berber alternated in communication among the populations of the Western parts of North Africa. The Arabic language arrived in the Maghreb region with the Arab conquest and Islam. This language ousted the Romances languages, although the process was a long time one : Romance language islets still existed in the Maghreb in the 12th century. The Maghreb once again became partly Romance with colonisation. From the 1830s, the French began by conquering Algeria, where French was declared the official language of the country. It also obtains the position of highly placed languages of local elites. In today's Maghreb, only Arabic possesses the status of official language. In spite of that, French is doing well in the region at the start of the 21st century.

See also

• Arabs
• Berbers
• Maghreb Jews
• Northwest Africa
• Carthage empire
• List of Maghrebis
• E1b1b1b (Y-DNA)

References and notes

1. ^ without Ceuta, Melilla
2. ^ "Estimé à six millions d'individus, l'histoire de leur enracinement, processus toujours en devenir, suscite la mise en avant de nombreuses problématiques...", « Être Maghrébins en France » in Les Cahiers de l’Orient, n° 71, troisième trimestre 2003
3. ^ Maghreb people represent 45% of people born in arab countries who emigrated to Europe and N.America, they are 41% of the all Immigrants in Europe
4. ^ css.escwa.org
5. ^ Smail Chadli, Afrique du Nord: Anthropologie Génétique et Histoire du peuplement Humain, Anthropologie Génétique et Histoire du peuplement Humain. Antropo, 20, 41-48
6. ^ Esperanza Alfonso, Islamic culture through Jewish eyes al-Andalus from the tenth to twelfth century, Routledge, 2007, p.104
7. ^ Michèle Tribalat , « Mariages « mixtes » et immigration en France », Espace populations sociétés [En ligne] , 2009/2 | 2009 , mis en ligne le 01 avril 2011
8. ^ Carolyn Burke. No Regrets: The Life of Edith Piaf, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2011, p.5
9. ^ Michèle Tribalat, Revue Commentaire, juin 2009, n°127
10. ^ Michèle Tribalat, Les yeux grands fermés, Denoël, 2010
11. ^ Robert Castel, La discrimination négative, Paris, La République des idées/Seuil, 2007
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External links

• The African roots of Latin Christianity by Henri Teissier, Regional Bishop of North Africa