Pipa

This article is about the Chinese instrument. For other uses, see Pipa (disambiguation).

Pipa

Classification	Necked bowl lutes String instruments
Related instruments
Angélique Archlute Balalaika Barbat Bağlama Baglamas Biwa Bouzouki Charango Chitarra Italiana Daguangxian Đàn tỳ bà Dombra Domra Dutar Electric pipa Komuz Irish bouzouki Liuqin Lute Mandocello Mandola Mandolin Oud Pandura Rubab Setar Sitar Surbahar Tambouras Tanbur Tambur Tembûr Theorbo Tiorbino Topshur Veena

The pipa (Chinese: 琵琶; pinyin: pípá, [pʰǐpʰǎ]) is a four-stringed Chinese musical instrument, belonging to the plucked category of instruments (弹拨乐器/彈撥樂器). Sometimes called the Chinese lute, the instrument has a pear-shaped wooden body with a varying number of frets ranging from 12–26. Another Chinese 4 string plucked lute is the liuqin, which looks like a smaller version of the pipa.

The pipa is one of the most popular Chinese instruments and has been played for nearly two thousand years in China. Several related instruments in East and Southeast Asia are derived from the pipa; these include the Japanese biwa, the Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà, and the Korean bipa. The Korean instrument is the only one of the three that is no longer used; examples survive in museums, but attempts to revive that instrument failed.

History

Musicians in a scene from paradise, Yulin Cave 25, Tang Dynasty

Early Chinese texts suggest that instruments called pipa existed in China as early as the Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC). The word may have an onomatopoeic origin (the word being similar to the sounds the instrument makes) according Liu Xi's (劉熙) Eastern Han Dynasty Dictionary of Names (釋名),^[1] or it may have been derived from the Persian barbat.^[2][3] Liu Xi also stated that the instrument called "pipa" (then written as 枇杷) originated from the "Hu barbarians." However, the word was used from these early times up until the Tang period to describe a variety of plucked chordophones. One, called xiantao (弦鼗), was straight-necked, with a round sound box constructed from lacquered Paulownia wood, and two faces mounted with leather. Another, the qin pipa (秦琵琶), had a straight neck, a round sound box, and also four strings, along with twelve standards of notes. This was later developed into the instrument known today as the ruan which was named after Ruan Xian (阮咸), one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove.^[4]

The pear-shaped pipa is likely to have been introduced to China from Central Asia (Gandhara) and/or India.^[5] Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted in Gandharn sculptures from first century AD.^[6] The pipa from Han Dynasty was referred to as Han pipa,^[5] and other pipas were introduced during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Tang Dynasty. Apart from the four-stringed pipa, there were the five-stringed wuxian pipa (五弦琵琶), and the two-stringed hulei (忽雷). From the third century onwards, through the Sui and Tang dynasty, the pear-shaped pipas became increasingly popular in China. By the Sung Dynasty the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the pear-shaped instrument.

The pipa became a favourite in the Tang Dynasty, and was a principal musical instrument in the imperial court. During this time Persian and Kuchan performers and teachers were in demand in the capital, Chang'an (which had a large Persian community).^[7] Many delicately carved pipas with beautiful inlaid patterns date from this period. It had close association with Buddhism and often appeared in mural and sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts. For example, masses of pipa-playing Buddhist semi-deities are depicted in the wall paintings of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. The instrument also acquired a number of Chinese symbolisms during the Tang Dynasty. According to Duan Anjie (段安節) in his essay on pipa (琵琶錄), the instrument length of three feet five inches represents the three realms (heaven, earth, and man) and the five elements, while the four strings represent the four seasons.^[8]

Tang Dynasty five-stringed pipa		Back of a Tang Dynasty five-stringed pipa

The early instrument had a crooked neck, 4 or 5 silk strings, and 4 frets (相), and was played with a plectrum in a horizontal position. As the ages went by, the crooked neck was replaced by a straight one.^[9] During the early Ming Dynasty extra bamboo frets (品) were affixed onto the soundboard, increasing the range of the instrument. The number of frets gradually increased to between 14 or 16, then to 17, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. The 14- or 16-fret pipa had frets arranged in approximately equivalent to the western tone and semitone, starting at the nut, the intervals were T-S-S-S-T-S-S-S-T-T-3/4-3/4-T-T-3/4-3/4, (some frets produced a 3/4 tone or "neutral tone"). In the 1920s and 1930s, the number of frets was increased to 24, based on the 12 tone equal temperament scale, with all the intervals being semitones. The traditional 16-fret pipa is becoming less common, although it is still used in some regional styles such as the pipa in the southern genre of nanguan/nanyin. The plectrum was replaced by fingernails and the horizontal playing position was replaced by the vertical (or near-vertical) position. During this time, the five-stringed pipa became lost, although in the early 21st century it was revived by the Chinese-born, London-resident pipa performer Cheng Yu, who performs on a modernized five-string pipa modeled on the Tang dynasty instrument, which she researched and commissioned to be made.^[10]

The instrument was imported into Japan during the Tang Dynasty as well as into other regions such as Korea and Vietnam.

Pipa in Chinese literature

Early literary tradition in China, for example in a third-century description by Fu Xuan (傅玄), Ode to Pipa (琵琶賦),^[11] associates the Han pipa with the northern frontier, Princess Liu Xijun (劉細君公主), and Wang Zhaojun (王昭君), who were married to nomad rulers of the Wusun and Xiongnu peoples in what is now Mongolia and northern Xinjiang respectively. Wang Zhaojun in particular was frequently referenced in later literary works, as well as in music pieces such as "Zhaojun's Lament" (昭君怨), and in paintings where she was often depicted holding a pipa.

There are many references to pipa in Tang literary works, for example, in A Music Conservatory Miscellany (樂府雜錄) Duan Anjie described a duel between two pipa players, which was won by a monk disguised as a girl.^[12] The pipa is mentioned frequently in Tang Dynasty poetry, where it is often praised for its refinement and delicacy of tone. Bai Juyi's (白居易) famous "Song of Pipa" (琵琶行) describes a chance encounter with a female pipa player on the Yangtze River:^[13][14]

大絃嘈嘈如急雨 小絃切切如私語 嘈嘈切切錯雜彈 大珠小珠落玉盤	The bold strings rattled like splatters of sudden rain, The fine strings hummed like lovers' whispers. Chattering and pattering, pattering and chattering, As pearls, large and small, on a jade plate fall.

Playing and performance

The name "pípá" is made up of two Chinese syllables, "pí" (琵) and "pá" (琶). These, according to the Han Dynasty text by Liu Xi, refer to the way the instrument is played - "Pí" is to strike with the right hand from right to left, and "pá" is to pluck in the opposite direction.^[1] The strings were played using a large plectrum in the Tang Dynasty, a technique still used now for the Japanese biwa. The plectrum was then gradually replaced by the fingernails of the right hand, although finger-playing techniques may have existed as early as Tang. The most basic technique, tantiao (彈挑), involves just the index finger and thumb, while lunzhi (輪指} which produces the distinctive tremolo sound of the pipa involves all the fingers and thumb of the right hand. Since the revolutions in Chinese instrument-making during the 20th century, the softer twisted silk strings of earlier times have been exchanged for nylon-wound steel strings, which are far too strong for human fingernails, so false nails are now used, constructed of plastic or tortoise-shell, and affixed to the fingertips with the player's choice of elastic tape.

The pipa is held in a vertical or near-vertical position during performance, although in Tang and Sung periods the instrument was held in the horizontal position. Note that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers and strings never touch the fingerboard in between the frets, this is different from western fretted instruments. This allows for a greater control over timbre and intonation than their western counterparts, but makes chordal playing more difficult^{[citation needed]}.

Half-section of the Night Revels of Han Xizai, by Gu Hongzhong, 10th century. One lady is seen entertaining guests with a pipa and another lady is seen holding onto one.

Repertoire

Pipa has been played solo, or as part of a large ensemble or small group since the early times. Few pieces for pipa survived from the early periods, some however were preserved in Japan as part of togaku (Tang music) tradition. In the early 1900s, twenty-five pieces were found amongst tenth century manuscripts in the Mogao caves near Dunhuang, most of these pieces however may have originated from the Tang Dynasty.^[15] Three Ming Dynasty pieces were discovered in the Gaohe Jiangdong (高河江東} collection dating from 1528 which are very similar to those performed today, such as "The Moon on High" (月兒高). During the Qing Dynasty, scores for pipa were collected in Thirteen Pieces for Strings (弦索十三套). The first mass-produced edition of solo pieces for pipa is the Hua Family Collection (華氏譜, first published as 南北二派祕本琵琶真傳), which was edited by Hua Qiuping (華秋萍) and published in 1818 in three volumes.^[2] This collection contains famous pieces such as "Ambushed from Ten Sides" (十面埋伏), "General Giving Order" (將軍令), and "Flute and Drum at Sunset" (夕陽簫鼓). The earliest-known piece in the collection may be "Eagle Seizing a Swan" (海青挐天鵝, but listed as 海青挐鶴) which was mentioned in a Yuan Dynasty text.^[16] Other family-based collections were also published by Li Fangyuan (李芳園) and Ju Shilin (鞠士林), each representing different schools, and many of the pieces currently popular were described in these Qing collections. Further collections were published in the twentieth century.

The pipa pieces in the common repertoire can be split into four distinctive styles: 「文」 wen (civil), 「武」 wu (martial), 「大」 da (suite), and 「小」 xiao (solo).

Famous solo pieces now performed include:

Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Pinyin	English (translation)
十面埋伏	十面埋伏	Shí Mìan Maífú	Ambushed from Ten Sides
夕陽簫鼓	夕阳箫鼓	Xīyáng Xīao Gǔ	Flute and Drum at Sunset
陽春白雪	阳春白雪	Yángchūn Baíxuě	White Snow in Spring Sunlight
龍船	龙船	Lóngchuán	Dragon Boat
彝族舞曲	彝族舞曲	Yìzú Wúqǔ	Dance of the Yi People
大浪淘沙	大浪淘沙	Dàlàng Táo Shā	Big Waves Pushing the Sand
昭君出塞	昭君出塞	Zhàojūn Chū Saì	Zhaojun Outside the Frontier
霸王卸甲	霸王卸甲	Bàwáng Xiè Jiǎ	King Takes Off His Armour
綠腰	绿腰	Lǜyāo	Green Waist
春江花月夜	春江花月夜	Chūnjiāng Huā Yuèyè	Moonlit River in Spring

On top of these traditional melodies, new pieces are constantly being composed, most of which follow a more Western structure.

Schools

Different traditions with different styles of playing pipa are found in different regions of China which then developed into schools. In the narrative traditions where the pipa is used as an accompaniment to narrative singing, there are the Suzhou (蘇州彈詞), Sichuan (四川清音), and Northern (北方曲藝) schools. A number of other schools are associated with regional chamber ensemble traditions such as the Chaozhou (潮州) and Nanguan (南管) music. Nanguan pipa is unusual in that it is held in the horizontal position in the ancient manner instead of the vertical position normally used for solo playing in the present day.

There are five schools associated with the solo tradition, each are associated with one or more published collection of pipa music and named after its place of origin -

• Wuxi (無錫派) - associated with the Hua Family Collection by Hua Qiuping.
• Pinghu (平湖派) - associated with the Li Family Collection (李氏譜) compiled by Li Fangyuan.
• Pudong (浦東派) - associated with the Ju Family Collection (鞠氏譜) which is based on a handwritten manuscript by Ju Shilin from the eighteenth century.
• Chongming (崇明派) - associated with Old Melodies of Yingzhou (瀛洲古調) compiled by Shen Zhaozhou (沈肇州) in 1916.
• Shanghai (汪派) - the Shanghai or Wang school (named after Wang Yuting (汪昱庭) who created this style of playing) may be considered a synthesis of the other four schools especially the Pudong and Pinghu schools.

Performers

A Sui Dynasty (581–618) terracotta pipa-player in a suit of armor

In the 20th century, two of the most prominent pipa players were Sun Yude (孙裕德; 1904-1981) and Li Tingsong (李庭松; 1906-1976). Both were pupils of Wang Yuting (1872–1951), and both were active in establishing and promoting guoyue (国乐; literally "national music"), a combination of traditional regional musics and Western musical practices. Sun performed in the United States, Asia, and Europe, and in 1956 became deputy director of the Shanghai minzu yuetuan (上海民族乐团; Shanghai Folk Orchestra). As well as being one of the leading pipa players of his generation, Li held many academic positions and also carried out research on pipa scales and temperament. Wei Zhongle (卫仲乐; 1908 or 1909-1998) played many instruments, including the guqin. In the early 1950s, he founded the traditional instruments department at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music.

Lin Shicheng (林石城; 1922-2006), born in Shanghai, began learning music under his father and was taught by Shen Haochu (沈浩初; 1899–1953), a leading player in the Pudong (浦东) school style of pipa playing. He also qualified as a doctor of Chinese medicine. In 1956, after working for some years in Shanghai, Lin accepted a position at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu Dehai (刘德海; b. 1937) also born in Shanghai, was a student of Lin Shicheng and in 1961 graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu also studied with other musicians and has developed a style that combines elements from several different schools.

Prominent students of Lin Shicheng include Liu Guilian (刘桂莲, b. 1961), Wu Man (吴蛮, b. 1963) and Gao Hong (高虹, b. 1964). Wu, who is probably the best known pipa player internationally, received the first-ever master's degree in pipa and won China's first National Academic Competition for Chinese Instruments. She lives in San Diego, California and works extensively with Chinese, cross-cultural, new music, and jazz groups. Shanghai-born Liu Guilian graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and became the director of the Shanghai Pipa Society, and a member of the Chinese Musicians Association and Chinese National Orchestral Society, before immigrating to Canada. She now performs with Red Chamber and the Vancouver Chinese Music Ensemble. Gao Hong graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and was the first to do a joint tour with Lin Shicheng in North America. They recorded the critically acclaimed CD Hunting Eagles Catching Swans together.

Other contemporary players who have introduced the pipa to North America, Europe, or Japan include Min Xiao-Fen, Zhou Yi (周懿), Yang Wei (楊惟), Guan Yadong(管亚东), Tang Liangxing (湯良興), Jiang Ting, Qiu Xia He, Liu Fang (劉芳), Yang Jing(楊靜), Ting Ting (Zong Tingting), Cheng Yu, Jie Ma (马捷), and Changlu Wu(吳长璐).

Prominent pipa players in China include Yu Jia (俞嘉), Wu Yu Xia (吳玉霞), Zhang Qiang (張強), Fang JinLung (方錦龍), and Fan Wei (樊薇).

Use in contemporary classical music

In the late 20th century, largely through the efforts of Wu Man, Min Xiao-Fen, and other performers, Chinese and Western contemporary composers began to create new works for the pipa (both solo and in combination with chamber ensembles and orchestra). Most prominent among these are Terry Riley, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Tan Dun, Bright Sheng, Chen Yi, Zhou Long, Bun-Ching Lam, and Carl Stone.^[17]

Use in other genres

The pipa has also been used in rock music; the California-based band Incubus featured one, borrowed from legendary guitarist Steve Vai, in their 2001 song "Aqueous Transmission," as played by the group's guitarist, Mike Einziger.^[18] The Shanghai progressive/folk-rock band Cold Fairyland, which was formed in 2001, also use pipa (played by Lin Di), sometimes multi-tracking it in their recordings. Australian dark rock band The Eternal use the pipa in their song 'Blood' as played by singer / guitarist Mark Kelson on their album 'Kartika'.

Electric pipa

An electric pipa

The electric pipa was developed in the late 20th century by adding electric guitar-style magnetic pickups to a regular acoustic pipa, allowing the instrument to be amplified through an instrument amplifier or PA system.

See also

• Traditional Chinese musical instruments
• Biwa
• Lute
• Jiangnan sizhu

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Chinese Text Project - Shiming《釋名·釋樂器》 Original text: 枇杷，本出於胡中，馬上所鼓也。推手前曰枇，引手卻曰杷。象其鼓時，因以為名也。 Translation: Pipa, originated from the Hu barbarians, who played the instrument on horseback. Strumming outward with the hand is called "pi", plucking inward is called "pa", the words resemble the sounds made, hence the name.
2. ^ ^{a b} John Myers (1992). The way of the pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-455-5. 
3. ^ Kishibe's diffusionism theory on the Iranian Barbat and Chino-Japanese Pi' Pa'
4. ^ The music of pipa
5. ^ ^{a b} The pipa: How a barbarian lute became a national symbol
6. ^ The Origin of the Short Lute Laurence Picken, 1955
7. ^ See also The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics, by Edward H. Schafer; University of California Press, 1963.
8. ^ Pipa lu 琵琶錄 Original text: 長三尺五寸，法天地人五行，四弦象四時，釋名琵琶。
9. ^ Chinese Pipa - a four-stringed lute
10. ^ Cheng Yu : 5 string pipa
11. ^ Song Shu 《宋書·樂志一》 Book of Song quoting earlier work by Fu Xuan. Original text: 琵琶，傅玄《琵琶賦》曰： 漢遣烏孫公主嫁昆彌，念其行路思慕，故使工人裁箏、築，為馬上之樂。欲從方俗語，故名曰琵琶，取其易傳於外國也。 Note that this passage describes the instrument as having been commissioned by the Emperor as a modification of the Chinese zither Zheng tailored for playing on horseback. The veracity of this claim however is open to question.
12. ^ Duan Anjie - Yuefu zalu 樂府雜錄
13. ^ Pipa Xing The Pipa Song by Bai Juyi
14. ^ 琵琶行
15. ^ A report on Chinese research into the Dunhuang music manuscripts Chen Yingshi, Musica Asiatica, 1991 ISBN 0-521-39050-8
16. ^ Yang Yunfu 楊允孚 《灤京雜詠》 Original text: 為愛琵琶調有情，月髙未放酒杯停，新腔翻得凉州曲彈出天鵝避海青海。 《海青挐天鵝》新聲也。
17. ^ [1]
18. ^ Incubus - Mike Einziger Guitar Gear Rig and Equipment

Further reading

• New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London, 2001).
• John Myers (1992). The way of the pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-455-5. 

External links

• An article on the historical development of pipa
• The Pipa on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Youtube music videos: Pipa music performed by renowned pipa masters from China, Hong Kong and Taiwan