Foie gras

"Pâté de foie gras" redirects here. For the story by Isaac Asimov, see Pâté de Foie Gras (short story).

"Fat liver" redirects here. For the medical condition, see Fatty liver.

Foie gras with mustard seeds and green onions in duck jus

An entire foie gras (partly prepared for a terrine).

Pâté de foie gras, canned

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,933 kJ (462 kcal)
Carbohydrates	4.67 g
- Dietary fiber	0.0 g
Fat	43.84 g
Protein	11.40 g
Thiamine (vit. B1)	0.088 mg (8%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)	0.299 mg (25%)
Niacin (vit. B3)	2.51 mg (17%)
Sodium	697 mg (46%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Foie gras ( /fwɑːˈɡrɑː/; French: [fwa gʁa]); French for "fat liver") is a food product made of the liver of a duck or goose that has been specially fattened. This fattening is typically achieved through gavage (force-feeding) corn, according to French law,^[1] though outside of France it is occasionally produced using natural feeding. A pastry containing pâté de foie gras and bacon, or pâté de foie gras tout court, was formerly known as "Strasbourg pie" (or "Strasburg pie"^[2]) in English on account of that city's being a major producer of foie gras.^[3]

Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine. Its flavor is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole, or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pâté (the lowest quality), and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that "Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."^[4]

The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, when the ancient Egyptians began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding.^[5] Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and the People's Republic of China.^[6]

Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial due to the force feeding procedure used. A number of countries and other jurisdictions have laws against force feeding or the sale of foie gras.

History

A bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese

Ancient times

As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of migratory birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.^[7][8] In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, an important royal official, there is a bas relief scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese.^[8][9][10]

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.^[11] The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers' fattened geese and calves.^[8][12]

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named iecur ficatum;^[13][14][15] iecur means liver^[16] and ficatum derives from ficus, meaning fig in Latin.^[17] The emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his chaotic reign.^[18] Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome Marcus Gavius Apicius, with feeding dried figs to geese in order to enlarge their livers:

"Apicius made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; it consists in cramming them with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixed with honey, and immediately killed."

— Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book VIII. Chapter 77^[19]

Hence, the term iecur ficatum, fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of Roman luxury cuisine is of Greek inspiration.^[20] Ficatum was closely associated with animal liver and it became the root word for "liver"^[21] in each of these languages: foie in French,^[22] hígado in Spanish, fígado in Portuguese, fegato in Italian and ficat in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.^[23][24]

Postclassical Europe

After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pig and sheep.^[25] Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea^[26] or earlier from Egyptians.^[27] The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.^[26]

The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products.^[11] Jewish cuisine used olive oil in the Mediterranean, and sesame oil in Babylonia, but neither cooking medium was easily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as schmaltz), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead.^[26][28] The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. The chasam sofer, Rabbi Moses Sofer, contended that it is not a forbidden food (treyf) as none of its limbs are damaged. This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century.^[26] Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is an arduous endeavour few engage in seriously. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras.

Bartolomeo Scappi

Gentile gastronomes began appreciating fattened goose liver, which they could buy in the local Jewish ghetto of their cities. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi, chef de cuisine to Pope Pius V, published his cookbook Opera, wherein he describes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds."^[29] In 1581, Marx Rumpolt of Mainz, chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook Ein Neu Kochbuch, describing that the Jews of Bohemia produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it—including one for goose liver mousse.^[29][30] János Keszei, chef to the court of Michael Apafi, the prince of Transylvania, included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook A New Book About Cooking, instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."

Main producers

Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.^[6]

Country	Production (tons, 2005)	% of total
France	18,450[31]	78.5%
Hungary	1,920[31]	8.2%
Bulgaria	1,500[31]	6.4%
United States	340 (2003)[32]	1.4%
Canada	200 (2005)[33]	0.9%
China	150[31]	0.6%
Others	940	4.0%
Total	23,500[31]	100%

France is the leading producer and consumer of duck and goose foie gras. In 2005, the country produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes) of which 96% was duck liver and the rest goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras was 19,000 tonnes in 2005.^[31] Approximately 30,000 people are members of the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord (Dordogne), the Midi-Pyrénées régions in the southwest, and Alsace. The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (label rouge) in southwestern France with a geographical indication of provenance.

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (libamáj) producer and the largest exporter (1,920 tonnes in 2005). France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras; mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry.^[34] French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.^[35]

Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras in 2005;^[31] Canada also has a thriving foie gras industry. The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.

Forms of foie gras

Moulard duck foie gras with pickled pear

In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, from the expensive to the cheap:^[36]

• foie gras entier (whole foie gras), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either cooked (cuit), semi-cooked (mi-cuit), or fresh (frais);
• foie gras, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
• bloc de foie gras, a fully cooked, molded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed avec morceaux ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there exist pâté de foie gras; mousse de foie gras (both must contain 50% or more foie gras); parfait de foie gras (must contain 75% or more foie gras); and other preparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside the Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Quebec, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizable market for the product. In US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C, with Grade A typically being the highest in fat. It is especially suited for low-temperature preparations, because the veins are relatively fewer and the resulting terrine will fit the aesthetic requirement of lacking obvious included blood. Grade B is accepted for high-temperature preparation, because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where the high proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.^{[citation needed]}

Production methods

The physiological basis of foie gras production is migratory birds' capacity for weight gain, particularly in the liver, in preparation for migration. Toulouse geese^[37] and Mulard ducks are the most commonly used breeds for foie gras.^[38] Mulards are a cross breed between a male Muscovy Duck and a female Pekin duck, and are estimated to account for about 35% of all ducks consumed in the US. Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.^[39] The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by the gastronome.

Physiology and preparation

Geese and ducks are omnivorous, and, like many birds, have expansive throats allowing them to store large amounts of food, either whole or pre-digested, in the crop, an enlarged portion of the esophagus, while awaiting digestion in the stomach, similar to python feeding. In the wild this dilation allows them to swallow large foodstuffs, such as a whole fish, for a later, long digestion. Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eat 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. A wild duck may double its weight in the autumn, storing fat throughout much of its body and especially on the liver, in preparation for winter migration.^[40] Force feeding produces a liver that is six to ten times its ordinary size.^[41] Storage of fat in the liver produces steatosis of the liver cells.

The geese or ducks used in foie gras production are usually kept in a building on straw for the first four weeks, then kept outside for some weeks, feeding on grasses. This phase of the preparation is designed to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus.^[42] The birds are then brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. The next feeding phase, which the French call gavage or finition d'engraissement, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to 4 times daily. In order to facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typically housed in individual cages or small group pens during this phase.

Fattening

Modern gavage feeding process, which takes 2–3 seconds to complete.

In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, its weight, and the amount of feed it last ingested.^[43] At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of 250 grams (9 oz) of food per day, and up to 1,000 grams (35 oz) (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, since the birds are fed a mash whose composition is about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight).^[44]

The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the animal's esophagus; if an auger is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds. Modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump;^[45] with such a system the operation time per duck takes about 2 to 3 seconds. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding.^[46] There is also indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening.^[47] Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.^[48][49][50]

Alternative production

Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this is referred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does not conform to the French legal definition, and there is debate about the quality of the liver produced.^{[citation needed]} This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when livers are naturally fattened.^[51] This has only recently been produced commercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.

While force feeding is required to meet the French legal definition of "foie gras", producers outside of France do not always force feed birds in order to produce fattened livers that they consider to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed ad libitum. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to ethical concerns in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fatty goose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras.

The terms ethical foie gras or humane foie gras is also used for gavage-based foie gras production that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses rather than steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humane treatment,^[52] as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have not produced satisfactory results.^[53]

More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a ventromedian hypothalamic (VMH) lesion will not tend to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than an unaffected animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the animal's food consumption, when permitted to eat ad libitum, by a factor of more than two.^[54]

Preparations

Foie gras with onions and figs

Generally, French preparations of foie gras are over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool or cold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it also is eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras sushi rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside steak tartare or atop a steak as a garnish.

Cold preparations

Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in terrines, pâtés, parfaits, foams and mousses of foie gras, often flavored with truffle, mushrooms or brandy such as cognac or armagnac. These slow-cooked forms of foie gras are cooled and served at or below room temperature.

In a very traditional form of terrine, au torchon ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a bain-marie. For added flavor (from the Maillard reaction), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of grape vine clippings (sarments) before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, in slices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("cru au sel"), served slightly chilled.^[55]

Hot preparations

Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, foie gras is increasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("foie gras de canard") has slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras ("foie gras d'oie"), but chefs have been able to cook goose foie gras employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (poëllé) or (with care and attention), grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and therefore at high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the foie gras on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of molecular gastronomy such as Heston Blumenthal of The Fat Duck restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in liquid nitrogen, with the searing process resulting in a piece at room temperature.

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. It has become fashionable in 3-star restaurants to use artisanal coarse salt to provide a visual and textural garnish.

Consumption

Foie gras is a luxury dish. In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve réveillon dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.^[56] In some areas of France foie gras is eaten year-round.

Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper^[56] and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted for being less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.^[57]

Controversy

Main article: Foie gras controversy

See also: Force-feeding#Force-feeding of animals

Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial, due to the force feeding procedure, and the possible health consequences of an enlarged liver.^{[citation needed]}

A number of countries and other jurisdictions have laws against force feeding or the sale of foie gras due to how it is traditionally produced. In modern gavage-based foie gras production, force feeding takes place 12–18 days before slaughter. The duck or goose is typically fed a controlled amount of corn mash through a tube inserted in the animal's cuticle-lined esophagus.

Foie gras production has been banned in nations such as some members of the European Union^[58], Turkey and Israel because of the force-feeding process.^[59] Foie gras producers maintain that force feeding ducks and geese is not uncomfortable for the animals nor is it hazardous to their health.

Empirical observations by the National Institute of Agronomic Research in Nouzilly, France, concluded that fowl exhibited no signs of aversion, but rather attraction to human fowl feeders, thus indicating a lack of behavioral response that is commonly associated with harmful experiences. They concluded from the lack of nociceptive pain activity (or of any increased corticosterone blood levels as a measure to indicate stress during feedings), that force feeding causes neither pain nor stress for fowl. The study observed culling rates of less than 3%, which were interpreted as evidence against allegations of high mortality rates.^[60]

The city of Chicago banned the production and selling of foie gras from 2006 until 2008, when it reversed its decision based on the criticisms that the ban was maneuvered into a larger package that the city council had voted on.^[61] The state of California has also banned Foie Gras, the ban is to take effect in 2012^[62].

Animal rights and welfare groups such as PETA,^[63] Viva!,^[64] and the Humane Society of the United States^[65] contend that foie gras production methods, and force feeding in particular, constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals. Specific complaints include livers swollen to many times their normal size, impaired liver function, expansion of the abdomen making it difficult for birds to breathe, death if the force feeding is continued, and scarring of the esophagus^{[citation needed]}. PETA claims that the insertion and removal of the feeding tube scratch the throat and the esophagus, causing irritations and wounds and thus exposing the animal to risk of mortal infections.

Empirical research regarding the health and welfare of the bird during the production of foie gras is limited in quantity and quality.^[47]

A recent study demonstrated oral amyloid-A fibril transmissibility which raised food safety issues with consumption of foie gras over "concerns that products such as pâté de foie gras may activate a reactive systemic amyloidosis in susceptible consumers".^[66][67] Foie gras as a amyloid-containing food product hastened the development of amyloidosis. Amyloidosis may be transmissible, akin to the infectious nature of prion-related illnesses.^[68] However, a correlation between foie gras consumption and these diseases has not been confirmed.^[69]

EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Welfare

The report of the European Union's Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese, adopted on December 16, 1998, is an 89-page review of studies from several producing countries. It examines several indicators of animal welfare, including physiological indicators, liver pathology, and mortality rate. It strongly concludes that "force feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds."

Members of the committee describe how geese and ducks show "avoidance behaviour indicating aversion for the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure". Although the committee reported that there is no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force feeding, and that evidence of injury is "small", in their overall recommendations, the committee stated that "the management and housing of the birds used for producing foie gras have a negative impact on their welfare".^[70][71]

Both the American Veterinary Medical Association's House of Delegates and the American Association of Avian Pathologists have concluded that foie is not a product of animal cruelty. ^[72]

Notes

1. ^ French rural code L654-27-1: "On entend par foie gras, le foie d'un canard ou d'une oie spécialement engraissé par gavage." ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been specially fattened by gavage").
2. ^ William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair, Ch. 9 (indicating the dish's popularity in the diplomatic corps).
3. ^ The New Encyclopædia, ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.
4. ^ French rural code L654-27-1
5. ^ Ancient Egyptian Veterinary Practices
6. ^ ^{a b} A Global Taste Test of Foie Gras and Truffles : NPR
7. ^ (McGee 2004, p. 167): "Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC."
8. ^ ^{a b c} (Toussaint-Samat 1994, p. 425).
9. ^ (Ginor 1999, p. 2).
10. ^ "Living With the Animals", Joseph J.. Hobbs, Saudi Aramco World July/August 2001, pp. 14–21.
11. ^ ^{a b} (Alford 2001, p. 36).
12. ^ (Ginor 1999, p. 3).
13. ^ Authentic Recipes, Food, Drinks, and Cooking Techniques
14. ^ (Ginor 1999, p. 4).
15. ^ (Giacosa 1994, p. 13).
16. ^ (Langslow 2000, p. 153): "A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is iecur 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always hepar, while iecur is used of an animal (...)"
17. ^ "Ficus,i" (...) Derivés: (...) ficatum n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ficis pastum iecur anseris albae, calque du gr. συκωτόν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé iecur. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine, Éd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979.
18. ^ (Toussaint-Samat 1994, p. 426).
19. ^ Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S., H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.) For the original Latin text, see here. The Latin text (ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff) of Perseus Digital Library places the corresponding text in a wrong chapter. URL accessed December 30, 2006.
20. ^ (Faas 2002, p. 19)
21. ^ Yakov Malkiel of University of California explains that the Portuguese word iguaria, meaning "tasty food, dainty dish", is traced back to Late Latin iequaria and thus connected to the iecur family, and ficatum replaced the traditional Latin word for "liver". See The Etymology of Portuguese Iguaria by Yakov Malkiel. URL accessed December 30, 2006.
22. ^ (Walter 2006, p. 40): "(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ficato, which has become the French foie. The word ficato is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say frites as an abbreviation of pommes de terre frites). To begin with the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ."
23. ^ (Littré 1863, p. 137): "Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que foie; seulement, il conserve le t du Latin; car on sait que foie vient de ficatum (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là, foie en général). Foie en français, feûte en wallon, fetge en provençal, fégato en italien, hígado en espagnol, fígado en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ficátum, qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, fícatum avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième."
24. ^ Dizionario etimologico online: fégato.
25. ^ (Ginor 1999, p. 8).
26. ^ ^{a b c d} (Ginor 1999, p. 9).
27. ^ (Davidson 1999, p. 311): "The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times, when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations."
28. ^ (Alford 2001, p. 37).
29. ^ ^{a b} (Ginor 1999, p. 11).
30. ^ (Toussaint-Samat 1994, p. 427).
31. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} "China to boost foie gras production". Xinhua online. 11 April 2006. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm. Retrieved 12 March 2007. 
32. ^ starchefs.com
33. ^ http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf
34. ^ cee-foodindustry.com
35. ^ Thorpe, Nick (12 January 2004). "Hungary foie gras farms under threat". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3346185.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2010. 
36. ^ Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993 defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France
37. ^ Toulouse Goose Pyrenees Biological Academy
38. ^ Ravo, Nick (24 September 1998). "A Cornucopia of Native Foie Gras; Partners' Efforts Produce Menu Delicacy in Abundance". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E0DB1639F937A1575AC0A96E958260. Retrieved 2 May 2010. 
39. ^ http://eCEuropa.eu/food/fs/sc/scah/out17_en.pdf Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare, Chapter 4, pp 24–29
40. ^ EU ReportPDF (277 KiB), section 4
41. ^ EU ReportPDF (277 KiB), p60
42. ^ EU ReportPDF (277 KiB) EU Scientific Report, p19
43. ^ tours.inra.fr
44. ^ Guemene D, et al., "Force-feeding procedure and physiological indicators of stress in male mule ducks", Br Poult Sci. 2001 Dec; 42(5):650–7, p.651.
45. ^ The standard practice is pneumatic force-feeding, as stated on this page and this foie gras enthusiast page; see also this force-feeding equipment page.
46. ^ Serviere, J, Bernadet, MD and Guy, G. 2003. Is nociception a sensory component associated to force-feeding? Neurophysiological approach in the mule duck. 2nd World Waterfowl Conference. Alexandria, Egypt
47. ^ ^{a b} Foie Gras Production Backgrounder
48. ^ EU Report
49. ^ Koehl, PF and Chinzi, D. 1996. Les resultats technico-economiques des ateliers de palmidpedes a foie gras de 1987 a 1994. 2eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 75.
50. ^ Chinzi, D and Koehl, PF. 1998. Caracteristiques desateliers d'elevage et de gavage de canards et mulards. Relations avec les performances et techniques et economiques. Proceedings des 3eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 107.
51. ^ business.timesonline.co.uk
52. ^ New York Times: Foie Gras Makers Struggle to Please Critics and Chefs
53. ^ EU ReportPDF (277 KiB), section 7.1, p. 57
54. ^ Effect of induced hypothalamic hyperphagia and forced-feeding on organ weight and tissular development in Landes geese, Bernadette Felix et al
55. ^ Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.
56. ^ ^{a b} "The goose is getting fat Politically incorrect it may be, but foie gras is storming British menus. Anwer Bati reports". The Daily Telegraph (London). 1 November 2003. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010. 
57. ^ ...goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild ISBN 1864500212, 9781864500219 page 49
58. ^ The ratification list includes 30 countries plus the European union itself, through which 5 additional countries are signatories.
59. ^ Israel to ban force-feeding of geese
60. ^ www.artisanfarmers.org/images/Foie_Gras_Study_by_Dr._Guemene.pdf
61. ^ Nick Fox (14 March 2008). "Chicago Overturns Foie Gras Ban". The New York Times. http://dinersjournal.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/14/chicago-overturns-foie-gras-ban/. Retrieved 15 October 2008. 
62. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/16/us/in-california-going-all-out-to-bid-adieu-to-foie-gras.html
63. ^ Foie Gras: Delicacy of Despair
64. ^ Viva! – Vegetarians International Voice for Animals
65. ^ Foie Gras
66. ^ Is foie gras a health hazard? Brisbane Times. 2 July 2007.
67. ^ Amyloidogenic potential of foie gras. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 10 Oct. 2006.
68. ^ Amyloidogenic potential of foie gras, Alan Solomon, Tina Richey, Charles L. Murphy, Deborah T. Weiss, Jonathan S. Wall, Gunilla T. Westermark‡, and Per Westermark. Communicated by D. Carleton Gajdusek, Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard, Gif-sur-Yvette, France, January 30, 2007.
69. ^ Leake, Jonathan (17 June 2007). "Foie gras could be tasty way to get Alzheimers". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article1942949.ece. Retrieved 2 May 2010. 
70. ^ Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and GeesePDF (277 KB) p.38: Whilst studies of the anatomy of ducks and geese kept for foie gras production have been carried out, the amount of evidence in the scientific literature concerning the effects of force feeding and liver hypertrophy on injury level, on the functioning of the various biological systems is small.
71. ^ EU ReportPDF (277 KB) p.62-63: Members of the Committee observed that, prior to force feeding the ducks and geese show avoidance behaviour indicating aversion for the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure. After a short period, birds which are able to do so move away from the person who force fed them.
72. ^ http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1669732,00.html

References

• Larousse Gastronomique, by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. ISBN 0-609-60971-8
• Alford, Katherine (2001), Caviar, Truffles, and Foie Gras, Chronicle Books, ISBN 0811827917 .
• Bett, Henry (2003), Wanderings Among Words, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 0766177920 .
• Davidson, Alan (1999), The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-211579-0 .
• Faas, Patrick (2002), Around the Table of the Romans: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312239580 .
• Giacosa, Ilaria Gozzini (1994), A Taste of Ancient Rome, University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226290328 .
• Ginor, Michael A. (1999), Foie Gras: A Passion, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-29318-0 .
• Langslow, David R. (2000), Medical Latin in the Roman Empire, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198152795 .
• Littré, Maximilien Paul Emile (1863), Histoire de la langue française: Études sur les origines, l'étymologie, la grammaire, Didier .
• McGee, Harold (2004), On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Scribner, ISBN 0684800012 .
• Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne (1994), History of Food, Blackwell Publishing Professional, ISBN 0631194975 .
• Walter, Henriette (2006), French Inside Out: The French Language Past and Present, Routledge, ISBN 0415076706 .

External links

• Scientific Studies
  • Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and GeesePDF (277 KiB)
• First person
  • An American food and wine blogger goes inside the gavage shed at a foie gras farm in the Dordogne (Périgord), with pictures

• Alternatives:

• • Foie Gras without force feeding
  • Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"
  • Citizens' Initiative for the banning of force-feeding
  • Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras
  • Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America? TIME, 12 August 2009