Northern Yuan Dynasty

Northern Yuan Dynasty From the 15th century onwards, the Dynasty was also known as The Six Tumen Mongols and the Four Tumen Oirats Бага хаадын үе 北元
Nomadic empire
←   ← 1368–1635 →   →   →
The Tumens of Mongolia proper and vassal states of the Mongol Empire by 1500
Capital	Shangdu (1368–69) Yingchang (1369–70) Karakorum(1371–88)
Language(s)	Mongolian
Religion	Shamanism (Animism) later Buddhism
Government	Hereditary monarchy
Khagan	For the full list of Mongolian Emperors, see Mongol Khans.
Legislature	Yassa Customary rules[1]
Historical era	From the late middle ages to the early modern era
- Expulsion of the Mongols from China to Mongolia	September 1368
- The murder of Togus Temur marked the rise of the Oirats.	1388
- Dayan Khan reunited the entire Mongol nation	1483–1510
- The death of the last Emperor Ligden Khan	1634
- Disestablished	1635

History of the Mongols

Before Genghis Khan

Khamag Mongol

Mongol Empire

Khanates

- Chagatai Khanate

- Golden Horde

- Ilkhanate

- Yuan Dynasty

Northern Yuan

Timurid Empire

Mughal Empire

Crimean Khanate

Khanate of Sibir

Zunghar Khanate

Mongolia during Qing

Outer Mongolia (1911-1919)

Republic of China (Occupation of Mongolia)

Mongolian People's Republic (Outer Mongolia)

Modern Mongolia

Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia)

People's Republic of China (Inner Mongolia)

Republic of Buryatia

Kalmyk Republic

Hazara Mongols

Aimak Mongols

Timeline

edit box

The Northern Yuan Dynasty^[2] (Chinese: 北元; pinyin: Beǐyuán; Mongolian: Бага хаадын үе) refers to the remnants of the Yuan Dynasty which continued to rule Mongolia after the expulsion from China in 1368, until the emergence of the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century. The period was marked by factional struggles and the often only nominal role of the Great Khan. The period before 1388, when Toghus Temur was murdered near the Tuul River, is sometimes referred to as Northern Yuan Dynasty.^[3] It's sometimes referred to as Post-Imperial Mongolia or Mongolian khanate^[4] in modern sources.^[5] In Mongolian chronicles this period is also known as The Forty and the Four, meaning forty tumen eastern Mongols and four tumen western Mongols.^[6]

Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun reunited the entire Mongol nation in the 15th century.^[7] However, the former's distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs caused the decentralization of the imperial rule.^[8] Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy and intra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign of Ligden Khan (1604–34).^[9]

The last sixty years of this period are marked by intensive penetration of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongolian society.

History

The Great Khan's return to Mongolia (1368–1388)

The Mongols under Khagan Kublai Khan (r.1260-94) of the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), a grandson of Genghis Khan (r.1206-27), had conquered all of China by eliminating the Southern Song Dynasty in 1276 and destroyed the last Chinese resistance in 1279. The Mongol Yuan Dynasty (Dai Yuan Ulus, 1271–1368) ruled all of China for about a century. However, the Mongols dominated North China for more than 140 years, starting from the time when the Jurchen Jin Dynasty was annihilated. Nevertheless, when the indigenous Chinese people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the ensuing famines since the late 1340s, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of the support from people. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide turmoil. Eventually, Zhu Yuanzhang, a Chinese peasant established the Ming Dynasty in South China, and sent an army toward the Yuan capital Dadu (present-day Beijing) in 1368. Toghan Temür (r.1333-70), the last ruler of the Yuan, fled north to Shangdu (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) from Dadu in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng Dynasty (1368–1644). He had tried to regain Dadu, but eventually failed; he died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death.

The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming Dynasty in 1370, where the name Great Yuan was formally carried on, known as the Northern Yuan. The Northern Yuan rulers also buttressed their claim on China, ^[10][11] and held tenaciously to the title of Emperor (or Great Khan) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大元可汗)^[12] to resist the Ming who now became the real ruler of China.

The Ming army pursued the Northern Yuan forces into Mongolia in 1372, but were defeated by the latter under Ayushridar (r.1370-78) and his general Köke Temür (d.1375). In 1375, Nahacu, a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan (Ayushridara) in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong with aims of restoring the Mongols to power. Although he continued to hold southern Manchuria, Nahacu finally surrendered to the Ming Dynasty in 1387-88 due to famines.^[13] The Yuan loyalists under the Kublaid prince Basalawarmi in Yunnan and Guizhou were also destroyed by the Ming in 1381-83.^[14]

The Ming tried again in 1380, ultimately winning a decisive victory over Northern Yuan in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoner^{[citation needed]}, and the Mongol capital Karakorum was sacked and ruined in 1380. It effectively destroyed the power of the Khaan's Mongols for a long time, and allowed the Western Mongols to become supreme.^[15]

Rise of the Oirats (1388–1478)

See also: Four Oirats

In 1388, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by Yesüder, a descendant of Arik Böke (Tolui's son), instead of the descendants of Kublai Khan. After the death of his master Togus Temur (r.1378-88), Gunashiri, a descendant of Chagatai Khan, founded his own small state called Qara Del in Hami.^[16] The following century saw a succession of Chinggisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear general designations for Mongolia such as period of the small kings.^[17] On one side stood the Oirats (or Western Mongols) in the west against the Eastern Mongols. While the Oirats drew their side to the descendants of Arik Boke and other princes, Arugtai of the Asud supported the old Yuan khans. Another force was the House of Ogedei who briefly attempted to reunite the Mongols under their rule.

The Mongols split into three main groups: western Mongols, the Mongol groups under the Uriyangkhai in northeast, and the Eastern Mongols between the two. The Uriyangkhai and some Borjigin princes surrendered to the Ming Dynasty in the 1390s. The Ming divided them into Three Guards: Doyin, Tai'nin and Fuyu.

Periods of conflict with the Ming Dynasty intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade. In 1402, Örüg Temür Khan (Guilichi) abolished the name Great Yuan; he was however defeated by Öljei Temür Khan (Bunyashiri, r.1403-12), the protege of Tamerlane (d.1405) in 1403. Most of the Mongol noblemen under Arugtai chingsang sided with Oljei Temur. Under Yongle (r.1402-24) the Ming Dynasty intervened aggressively against any overly powerful leader, exacerbating the Mongol-Oirat conflict. In 1409 Oljei Temur and Arugtai crushed a Ming army, so that Yongle personally attacked the two on the Kherlen River. After the death of Oljei Temur, the Oirats under their leader Bahamu (Mahmud) (d.1417) enthroned an Arik-Bokid, Delbeg Khan in 1412. Although, the Ming encouraged the Oirats to fight against the Eastern Mongols, they withdrew their support when the Oirats became powerful. After 1417 Arugtai became dominant again, and Yongle campaigned against him in 1422 and 1423. Bahamu's successor Toghan pushed Arugtai east of the Greater Khingan range in 1433. The Oirats killed him in the west of Baotou the next year. Arugtai's ally Adai Khan (r.1425-38) made a last stand in Ejene before he was murdered too.

Toghan died in the very year of his victory over Adai. His son Esen (r.1438-54) brought the Oirats to the height of their power. Under his Chinggisid puppet khans, he drove back the Moghulistan monarchs and crushed the Three Guards, Qara Del and the Jurchen. In 1449 he captured the Ming Emperor Zhengtong, bringing about a wholescale collapse of the Ming northern defence line.^[18] Esen and his father ruled as taishis of Chinggisid khans but after executing the rebellious khan Tayisung (r.1433-53) and his brother Agbarjin in 1453, Esen took the title khan himself.^[19] He was, however, soon overthrown by his chingsang Alag. His death broke up the role of the Oirats until they revived in the early 17th century.

From Esen's death to 1481 different warlords of the Kharchin, the Belguteids and Ordos fought over succession and had their Chinggisid Khans enthroned. The Mongolian chroniclers call some of them the Uyghurs and they might have some ties with the Hami oasis.^[20] During his reign, Manduulun Khan (1475–78) effectively won over most of the Mongol warlords before he died in 1478.

Restoration (1479–1540)

Queen Manduhai the Wise

Manduul's (Manduulun) young khatun Mandukhai proclaimed a boy named Batumongke. The new khan, as a descendant of Genghis Khan, took the title Dayan meaning the "Great Yuan", with reference to the Yuan Dynasty.^[21] Mandukhai and Dayan Khan overthrew Oirat supremacy. At first the new rulers operated with the taishi system. The taishis mostly ruled the Yellow River Mongols. However, one of them killed Dayan Khan's son and revolted when Dayan Khan appointed his son, jinong Ulusbold, over them. Dayan Khan finally defeated the southwestern Mongols in 1510 with the assistance of his allies, Unebolad wang and the Four Oirats.^[22] Making his another son jinong, he abolished old-Yuan court titles of taishi, chingsang, pingchan and chiyuan.

The Ming Dynasty closed border-trade and killed his envoys. Dayan invaded China and subjugated the Three Guards, tributaries of the Ming. The Oirats assisted his campaign in China.

He reorganized the Eastern Mongols into 6 tümens (literally "ten thousand") as follows.

• Left Wing:
  • Khalkha tumen: Northern 7 otog (Jalaid, Besud, Eljigin, Gorlos, Khukhuid, Khatighin, and later added Uriyangkhai) and Southern 5 otog (Baarin, Jarud, Bayagud, Uchirad and Qongirat)
  • Chahar tumen: Abaga, Abaganar, Aokhan, Dorvon khuukhed, Kheshigten, Muumyangan, Naiman, Onginuud, Khuuchid, Sunid, Uzemchin, and Urad^[23]
  • Uriankhai tumen. This tumen was later dissolved.

• Right Wing:
  • Ordos tumen:
  • Tümed tumen:
  • Yöngshiyebü tumen: (including Asud and Kharchin)

They functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies who hoped to receive taijis, descended from Dayan Khan. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to the South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of the Three Guards, respectively. After the rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were conquered in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. However, his decision to divide the Six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs-sons in law of the taijis created a decentralized system of Borjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for a century. Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy.

Decline (1540–1635)

By 1540 new regional circles of Chingisid taijis and local tabunangs (imperial son-in law) of the taijis emerged in all the former Dayan Khanid domains. The Khagan and the jinong (crown prince) had titular authority over the 3 right wing tumens. Darayisung Gödeng Khan (r.1547-57) had to grant titles of khans to his cousins Altan, ruling the Tumed and Bayaskhul, ruling the Kharchin. The decentralized peace among the Mongols was based on religious and cultural unity created by Chinggisid cults.

Temple at Erdene Zuu monastery established by Abtai Khan in the Khalkha heartland in the XVI century

A series of smallpox epidemics and lack of trade forced the Mongols to repeatedly plunder the districts of China. In 1571 the Ming opened trade with the 3 Right Wing Tumens. The large-scale conversion to Buddhism in the Three Right Wing Tumens from 1575 on, built on the amity of the Chinggisids. Tümen Jasagtu Khan appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of the Karma-pa order. In 1580 northern Khalkha proclaimed their leading Dayan Khanid prince, Abtai Khan, khan. Representatives from all Mongols, including Oirats, constituted the court of Tümen Jasagtu Khan who had conquered Koko Nur and codified a new law.^[24]

By the end of the 16th century, the Three Guards lost their existence as a distinct group. Their Fuyu was absorbed by the Khorchin after they had moved to the Nonni River. Two other, Doyin and Tai'nin, were absorbed by the Five Khalkhas.^[25]

In the 17th century, the Mongols came under the influence of the Manchus, who founded the Later Jin Dynasty (Qing Dynasty). The princes of Khorchin, Jarud and southern Khalkha Mongols made a formal alliance with the Manchus from 1612 to 1624.^[26] Resenting this suborning of his subjects, Ligdan Khan, the last Khagan^[27] in Chahar, unsuccessfully attacked them in 1625. He appointed his officials over the tumens and formed an elite military band to coerce opposition. The massive rebellion broke out in 1628. The Chahar under Ligden defeated their combined armies and the Manchu auxiliary at Zhaocheng but fled a large Manchu punitive expedition. Ligden died on his way to Tibet to punish the dGe-lugs-pa order in 1634. His son, Ejei Khan, surrendered to the Manchus and was said to give the seal of the Yuan Khagan to Qing emperor Hong Taiji the next year (February 1635), ending the Northern Yuan.^[28]

Aftermath

After the death of Dayan Khan most of Outer Mongolia came under the rule of descendents of his youngest son, Gersendze Huangtaizi. By the early 17th century these formed four Khanates, from west to east:

• The Altyn Khans in the far west, founded by Sului Ubasha,great grandson of Geresandza.
• The Dzasagtu Khans, khanate founded by Laikhor-khan, a cousin of the Altyn Khan.
• The Tushetu Khans at Ulan Bator founded by Abatai, another grandson. This was the senior branch.
• The Sechen Khans at the eastern end of modern Mongolia, founded by Shului, a great-grandson.

In the north, from 1583, Russian adventurers gained control of the forest tribes of Siberia but did not attempt to interfere with the numerous and warlike peoples south of the forests. They had some dealings with the Altyn Khan who is said to have introduced them to Chinese tea.

To the east, in 1582-1626, Nurhaci unified the tribes of Manchuria. His son, Huang Taiji (1626–1643) consolidated the new state and incorporated parts of Inner Mongolia. At his death Dorgon became regent for his 6-year-old son and was in charge when the Manchus took Beijing and founded the Qing Dynasty (1644).

To the west in Dzungaria, about 1600-1620 the Oirats or Western Mongols became united under Khara Khula and formed the Zunghar Khanate. This unification was partly driven by their wars with the Altyn Khans.

In 1662 the Altyn Khan attacked and put to death his eastern neighbor. This caused the senior Tushetu Khan to drive him out, but he was restored with Zunghar and Qing support. In 1682 he was captured by the next Dzashgtu Khan and his Khanate disappeared from history. The loss of the westernmost Khalka Khanate opened the way for the Zunghars. In 1672 Galdan became Khan of the Zunghars. After conquering the northern Tarim Basin from Kashgar to Hami he began to dream of uniting the Mongols and restoring the realm of Genghis Khan. He allied with the Dzasagtu Khan against the Tushetu Khan, who in turn attacked the Dzashgtu Khan (who drowned while trying to escape) and then invaded Dzungar territory where he killed one of Galdan's brothers. Galdan responded (1688) by annihilating the Tushetu Khan's army near the Tarim River and plundering the tombs at Karakoram. The Tushetu Khan and the other Khalkha leaders fled to Hohhot at the northeast corner of the Ordos Loop and begged for Qing help. By 1690 Galdan controlled the whole Khalkha country as far as the edge of Manchuria and turned south toward Beijing. This direct threat to the Qing led the Kangxi Emperor to block Galdan who withdrew to the northwest in late 1690. In May 1691 Kangxi held a Kurultai at Dolon Nor where the Khalkha chiefs declared themselves vassals of the Qing emperors. In 1695 Galdan moved east again. Kangxi sent a massive army and defeated him near Ulan Bator (at Chao-Modo or Zuunmod on June 12, 1696). Galdan fled with a few followers and later died. Outer Mongolia was thus incorporated into the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned to Outer Mongolia as Qing vassals. A Qing garrison was installed at Ulan Bator. The Qing forces occupied Hami but did not advance into Zungharia. Although the Zunghars later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan they made no attempt to return to Outer Mongolia.

References

1. ^ William Elliott Butler-The Mongolian legal system, p.3
2. ^ Jae-un Kang, Suzanne Lee, Sook Pyo Lee, "The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism"
3. ^ Luc Kwanten, "Imperial Nomads: A History of Central Asia, 500-1500"
4. ^ Or "Mongolian Khaanate" (Бага хаадын үеийн Монгол улс; Ж.Бор - Монгол хийгээд Евразийн дипломат шашстир, II боть)
5. ^ Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Reuven Amitai, David Morgan-The Mongol empire and its legacy‎, p.275
6. ^ In the 17th century the memory of the Yuan had faded among the Mongols, although editors of chronicles described in the 18th century mentioned clearly that Kublai was the founder of the Yuan dynasty. For details, see [1]
7. ^ Jack Weatherford-The Secret History of the Mongol Queens
8. ^ René Grousset-The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, p.508
9. ^ C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, see: Batumöngke Dayan Qaghan
10. ^ John Man- The Great Wall: The Extraordinary Story of China's Wonder of the World‎, p.183
11. ^ The Cambridge History of China, Vol 7, pg 193, 1988
12. ^ Carney T.Fisher, "Smallpox, Sales-men, and Sectarians: Ming-Mongol relations in the Jiang-jing reign (1552–67)", Ming studies 25
13. ^ Willard J. Peterson, John King Fairbank, Denis Twitchett- The Cambridge History of China‎, p.16
14. ^ Raoul Naroll, Vern L. Bullough, Frada Naroll-Military deterrence in history: a pilot cross-historical survey‎, p.97
15. ^ H.H.Howorth-History of the Mongols, part I. The Mongols proper and the Kalmuks
16. ^ Ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Reuven Amitai, David Morgan-The Mongol empire and its legacy, p.294
17. ^ Bat-Ochir Bold - Mongolian nomadic society, p.93
18. ^ D.Morgan-The Mongols‎, p.178
19. ^ Ph. de Heer-The care-taker emperor, p.99
20. ^ C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.408
21. ^ Memory of the Dai Yuan ulus (the Great Yuan dynasty)
22. ^ Ming shi, pp.378
23. ^ Bat-Ochir Bold-Mongolian nomadic society, p.170
24. ^ Our great Qing: the Mongols, Buddhism and the state in late imperial China By Johan Elverskog, p.68
25. ^ Willard J. Peterson, John King Fairbank, Denis C. Twitchett-The Cambridge history of China: The Ch'ing empire to 1800, Volume 9, p.16
26. ^ Evelyn S. Rawski-The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions‎ , p.493
27. ^ John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel, Robert A. F. Thurman-The Circle of Bliss, p.48
28. ^ Ann Heirman, Stephan Peter Bumbacher- The spread of Buddhism‎, p.395

See also

• Borjigin
• List of the Emperors of the Northern Yuan Dynasty
• Mongol Empire
• Yuan Dynasty