Chronic fatigue syndrome

Chronic fatigue syndrome
This article is about the medical condition Chronic fatigue syndrome. For the symptom chronic fatigue, see Fatigue (medical).
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 G93.3
ICD-9 780.71
DiseasesDB 1645
MedlinePlus 001244
eMedicine med/3392 ped/2795
MeSH D015673

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is the most common name[1] used to designate a significantly debilitating[2] medical disorder or group of disorders[3] generally defined by persistent fatigue accompanied by other specific symptoms for a minimum of six months, not due to ongoing exertion, not substantially relieved by rest, nor caused by other medical conditions.[2] The disorder may also be referred to as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), post-viral fatigue syndrome (PVFS), chronic fatigue immune dysfunction syndrome (CFIDS), or several other terms. Although classified by the World Health Organization under Diseases of the nervous system,[4] the etiology (cause or origin) of CFS is unknown, and multiple psychological and physiological factors may contribute to the development and maintenance of symptoms.[5][6] There is no diagnostic laboratory test or biomarker for CFS.[2]

Symptoms of CFS include post-exertional malaise; unrefreshing sleep; widespread muscle and joint pain; sore throat; headaches of a type not previously experienced; cognitive difficulties; chronic, often severe, mental and physical exhaustion; and other characteristic symptoms in a previously healthy and active person. Persons with CFS may report additional symptoms including muscle weakness, increased sensitivity to light, sounds and smells, orthostatic intolerance, digestive disturbances, depression, and cardiac and respiratory problems.[7] It is unclear if these symptoms represent co-morbid conditions or are produced by an underlying etiology of CFS.[5]

Fatigue is a common symptom in many illnesses, but CFS is comparatively rare.[8] Estimates of CFS prevalence vary widely,[8] from 7 to 3,000 cases of CFS for every 100,000 adults,[5] but national health organizations have estimated more than 1 million Americans and approximately a quarter of a million people in the UK have CFS.[9][10] CFS occurs more often in women than men,[11][12] and is less prevalent among children and adolescents.[9] The quality of life is "particularly and uniquely disrupted" in CFS.[13]

There is agreement on the genuine threat to health, happiness and productivity posed by CFS, but various physicians' groups, researchers and patient advocates promote different nomenclature, diagnostic criteria, etiologic hypotheses and treatments, resulting in controversy about many aspects of the disorder. The name "chronic fatigue syndrome" itself is controversial as many patients and advocacy groups, as well as some experts, want the name changed as they believe that it stigmatizes by not conveying the seriousness of the illness.[14]

Contents

Classification

Main article: Clinical descriptions of chronic fatigue syndrome

Notable definitions include:[7]

  • CDC definition (1994)[15]—the most widely used clinical and research description of CFS,[5] it is also called the Fukuda definition and was based on the Holmes or CDC 1988 scoring system.[16] The 1994 criteria require the presence of four or more symptoms beyond fatigue, where the 1988 criteria require six to eight.[17]
  • The Oxford criteria (1991)[18]—includes CFS of unknown etiology and a subtype called post-infectious fatigue syndrome (PIFS). Important differences are that the presence of mental fatigue is necessary to fulfill the criteria and symptoms are accepted that may suggest a psychiatric disorder.[7]
  • The 2003 Canadian Clinical working definition[19]— states that "A patient with ME/CFS will meet the criteria for fatigue, post-exertional malaise and/or fatigue, sleep dysfunction, and pain; have two or more neurological/cognitive manifestations and one or more symptoms from two of the categories of autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune manifestations; and [the illness will persist for at least 6 months]".

The different case definitions used to research the illness may influence the types of patients selected for studies,[20] and research also suggests subtypes of patients exist within the heterogeneous illness.[21][22][23][24] Clinical practice guidelines—with the aim of improving diagnosis, management, and treatment—are generally based on case descriptions. An example is the CFS/ME guideline for the National Health Service in England and Wales, produced in 2007 by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE).[17]

Naming

Main article: Alternative names for chronic fatigue syndrome

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is the most commonly used designation,[1] but widespread approval of a name is lacking.[25] Different authorities on the illness view CFS as a central nervous system, metabolic, infectious or post-infectious, cardiovascular, immune system or psychiatric disorder, and that different symptom profiles may be caused by a number of various disorders.[21]

Over time and in different countries many names have been associated with the condition(s). Aside from CFS, some other names used include Akureyri disease, benign myalgic encephalomyelitis, chronic fatigue immune dysfunction syndrome, chronic infectious mononucleosis, epidemic myalgic encephalomyelitis, epidemic neuromyasthenia, Iceland disease, myalgic encephalomyelitis, myalgic encephalitis, myalgic encephalopathy, post-viral fatigue syndrome, raphe nucleus encephalopathy, Royal Free disease, Tapanui flu and yuppie flu (considered pejorative).[26][27] Many patients would prefer a different name such as "myalgic encephalomyelitis", believing the name "chronic fatigue syndrome" trivializes the condition, prevents it from being seen as a serious health problem, and discourages research.[14][28][29]

A 2001 review referenced myalgic encephalomyelitis symptoms in a 1959 article by Acheson, stating ME could be a distinct syndrome from CFS, but in literature the two terms are generally seen as synonymous.[30] A 1999 review explained the Royal Colleges of Physicians, Psychiatrists, and General Practitioners in 1996 advocated the use of chronic fatigue syndrome instead of myalgic encephalomyelitis or ME which was in wide use in the United Kingdom, "because there is, so far, no recognized pathology in muscles and in the central nervous system as is implied by the term ME."[1][31] The 1996 report received some acceptance, but also harsh criticism that patients' views had been excluded. In 2002, a Lancet commentary noted the recent report by the "Working Group on CFS/ME"[32] used the compromise name CFS/ME stating, "The fact that both names for the illness were used symbolises respect for different viewpoints whilst acknowledging the continuing lack of consensus on a universally acceptable name."[25]

Signs and symptoms

Onset

The majority of CFS cases start suddenly,[33] usually accompanied by a "flu-like illness"[5] while a significant proportion of cases begin within several months of severe adverse stress.[33][34][35] An Australian prospective study found that after infection by viral and non-viral pathogens, a sub-set of individuals met the criteria for CFS, with the researchers concluding that "post-infective fatigue syndrome is a valid illness model for investigating one pathophysiological pathway to CFS".[36] However, accurate prevalence and exact roles of infection and stress in the development of CFS are currently unknown.

Symptoms

The most commonly used diagnostic criteria and definition of CFS for research and clinical purposes were published by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).[5] The CDC definition of CFS requires the following two criteria be fulfilled:[2]

  1. A new onset (not lifelong) of unexplained, persistent fatigue unrelated to exertion and not substantially relieved by rest, that causes a significant reduction in previous activity levels.
  2. Four or more of the following symptoms that last six months or longer:
    • Impaired memory or concentration
    • Post-exertional malaise, where physical or mental exertions bring on "extreme, prolonged exhaustion and sickness"
    • Unrefreshing sleep
    • Muscle pain (myalgia)
    • Pain in multiple joints (arthralgia)
    • Headaches of a new kind or greater severity
    • Sore throat, frequent or recurring
    • Tender lymph nodes (cervical or axillary)

Other common symptoms include:

  • Irritable bowel, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea or bloating
  • Chills and night sweats
  • Brain fog
  • Chest pain
  • Shortness of breath
  • Chronic cough
  • Visual disturbances (blurring, sensitivity to light, eye pain or dry eyes)
  • Allergies or sensitivities to foods, alcohol, odors, chemicals, medications or noise
  • Difficulty maintaining upright position (orthostatic instability, irregular heartbeat, dizziness, balance problems or fainting)
  • Psychological problems (depression, irritability, mood swings, anxiety, panic attacks)[37]

The CDC recommends that persons with symptoms resembling those of CFS consult a physician to rule out several treatable illnesses: Lyme disease,[2] "sleep disorders, depression, alcohol/substance abuse, diabetes, hypothyroidism, mononucleosis (mono), lupus, multiple sclerosis (MS), chronic hepatitis and various malignancies."[38] Medications can also cause side effects that mimic symptoms of CFS.[2]

Functioning

People report critical reductions in levels of physical activity[39] and a reduction in the complexity of activity has been observed,[40] with reported impairment comparable to other fatiguing medical conditions[41] including late-stage AIDS,[42] lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and end-stage renal disease.[43] CFS affects a person's functional status and well-being more than major medical conditions such as multiple sclerosis, congestive heart failure, or type II diabetes mellitus[13][44] The severity of symptoms and disability is the same in both genders[45] with strongly disabling chronic pain,[46] but despite a common diagnosis the functional capacity of individuals with CFS varies greatly.[47] While some lead relatively normal lives, others are totally bed-ridden and unable to care for themselves. Employment rates vary with over half unable to work and nearly two-thirds limited in their work because of their illness. More than half were on disability benefits or temporary sick leave, and less than a fifth worked full-time.[48]

Cognitive functioning

A 2010 meta-analysis concluded cognitive symptoms were principally resultants of decreased attention, memory, and reaction time. The deficits were in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 standard deviations below expected and were judged likely to affect day-to-day activities. Simple and complex information processing speed and functions entailing working memory over long time periods were moderately to extensively impaired. These deficits are generally consistent with those reported by patients. Perceptual abilities, motor speed, language, reasoning, and intelligence did not appear to be significantly altered.[49]

Pathophysiology

Main article: Pathophysiology of chronic fatigue syndrome

The mechanisms and pathogenesis of chronic fatigue syndrome are unknown.[9] Research studies have examined and hypothesized about the possible biomedical and epidemiological characteristics of the disease, including oxidative stress, genetic predisposition,[50] infection by viruses and pathogenic bacteria, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis abnormalities , immune dysfunction as well as psychological and psychosocial factors. Although it is unclear which factors are a cause, or consequence, of CFS, various models are proposed.[51][52][53]

Diagnosis

There are no characteristic laboratory abnormalities to diagnose CFS,[20] so testing is used to rule out other potential causes for symptoms.[15] When symptoms are attributable to certain other conditions, the diagnosis of CFS is excluded.

Treatment

Main article: Chronic fatigue syndrome treatment

Many people do not fully recover from CFS even with treatment.[54] Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and graded exercise therapy (GET) have shown moderate effectiveness for many people in multiple randomized controlled trials.[30][55][56][57] As many of the CBT and GET studies required visits to a clinic, those severely affected may not have been included.[55] Two large patient surveys indicated that pacing is the most helpful intervention, or is considered useful by 96% of participants.[58][59] Medication plays a minor role in management.[60] No intervention has been proven effective in restoring the ability to work.[55]

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), a form of psychological therapy often used to treat chronically ill patients,[61] is a moderately effective treatment for CFS [30][55] that "can be useful in treating some CFS patients."[61] Since the cause or causes of CFS are unknown, CBT tries to help patients understand their individual symptoms and beliefs and develop strategies to improve day-to-day functioning.[62]

A Cochrane Review meta-analysis of 15 randomized, controlled cognitive behavioral therapy trials with 1043 participants concluded that CBT was an effective treatment to reduce the symptom of fatigue. Four reviewed studies showed that CBT resulted in a clinical response for 40% of participants vs 26% of those treated with "usual care". Similarly, in three studies CBT worked better than other types of psychological therapies (48% vs 27%). The effects may diminish after a course of therapy is completed; the reviewers write that "the evidence base at follow-up is limited to a small group of studies with inconsistent findings" and encourage further studies.[63] A 2007 meta-analysis of 5 CBT randomized controlled trials of chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome reported 33-73% of the patients improved to the point of no longer being clinically fatigued.[64] A 2010 meta-analysis of trials that measured physical activity before and after CBT showed that although CBT effectively reduced fatigue, activity levels were not affected by CBT and changes in physical activity were not related to changes in fatigue. They conclude that the effect of CBT on fatigue is not mediated by a change in physical activity.[65]

CBT has been criticised by patients' organisations because of negative reports from some of their members[25] that have indicated that CBT can sometimes make people worse,[66] a common result across multiple patient surveys.[67]

Graded exercise therapy

Graded exercise therapy (GET) is a form of physical therapy. A meta-analysis published in 2004 of five randomized trials found that patients who received exercise therapy were less fatigued after 12 weeks than the control participants, and the authors cautiously conclude that GET shows promise as a treatment. However, after 6 months the benefit became non-significant compared to the control group who did not receive GET, and functional work capacity was not significantly improved after therapy.[68] A systematic review published in 2006 included the same five RCTs, noting that "no severely affected patients were included in the studies of GET".[55] Surveys conducted on behalf of patient organizations commonly report adverse effects.[25][66][69][70]

To avoid detrimental effects from GET, care must be taken to avoid the exacerbation of symptoms while catering the program to individual capabilities and the fluctuating nature of symptoms.[71]

Pacing

Pacing is an energy management strategy which encourages behavioral change while acknowledging patient fluctuations in symptom severity and delayed exercise recovery. Patients are advised to set manageable daily activity/exercise goals and balance activity and rest to avoid over-exertion which may worsen symptoms. Those able to function within their individual limits are encouraged to gradually increase activity and exercise levels while maintaining established energy management techniques. The goal is to gradually increase the level of routine functioning of the individual.[72] A small randomised controlled trial concluded that pacing had statistically better results than relaxation/flexibility therapy.[73][74] A 2009 survey of 828 Norwegian CFS patients found that pacing was evaluated as useful by 96% of the participants.[69]

Other

Other treatments of CFS have been proposed but their effectiveness has not been confirmed.[75] Medications thought to have promise in alleviating symptoms include antidepressant and immunomodulatory agents.[76] The evidence for antidepressants is mixed[77] and their use remains controversial.[78] Many CFS patients are sensitive to medications, particularly sedatives, and some patients report chemical and food sensitivities.[79] CFS patients have a low placebo response, especially to psychological-psychiatric interventions, perhaps due to patient expectations.[80]

Prognosis

Recovery

A systematic review of 14 studies that described improvement and occupational outcomes of people with CFS found that "the median full recovery rate was 5% (range 0–31%) and the median proportion of patients who improved during follow-up was 39.5% (range 8–63%). Return to work at follow-up ranged from 8 to 30% in the three studies that considered this outcome." .... "In five studies, a worsening of symptoms during the period of follow-up was reported in between 5 and 20% of patients." A good outcome was associated with less fatigue severity at baseline, a sense of control over symptoms and not attributing illness to a physical cause.[81] Another review found that children have a better prognosis than adults, with 54–94% having recovered by follow-up compared to less than 10% of adults returning to pre-morbid levels of functioning.[82] According to the CDC, delays in diagnosis and treatment can reduce the chance of improvement.[83]

Mortality

Two studies were published in 2006 that directly addressed mortality in CFS. A 14 year longitudinal study of persons with CFS reported that all-cause mortality or suicide rates of individuals were not significantly different from standardized mortality rates (SMRs).[84] A smaller retrospective study in individuals with CFS reported the leading causes of death were heart failure, suicide, and cancer. The ages of death for these three conditions were significantly younger than in the general population respectively. Significant limitations of the study were the inability to check the accuracy of the CFS diagnosis of the individuals or causes of death, and the inability to generalize the data to the overall population of patients with CFS due to the data collection methods.[85]

Epidemiology

Prevalence

A 2003 review states that studies have reported between 7 and 3,000 cases of CFS for every 100,000 adults.[5] Ranjith reviewed the epidemiological literature on CFS and suggested that the wide variance of the prevalence estimates may be due to the different definitions of CFS in use, the settings in which patients were selected, and the methodology used to exclude study participants with possible alternative diagnoses.[8] The Centers for Disease Control reports that more than 1 million Americans have CFS and approximately 80% of the cases are undiagnosed.[9] Approximately 250,000 people in the UK are affected with the illness according to the National Health Service.[10]

Risk factors

All ethnic and racial groups appear susceptible to the illness, and lower income groups are slightly more likely to develop CFS.[12] A 2009 meta-analysis showed that compared with the White American majority, African Americans and Native Americans have a significantly higher risk of CFS.[86] More women than men get CFS — between 60 and 85% of cases are women; however, there is some indication that the prevalence among men is underreported. The illness is reported to occur more frequently in people between the ages of 40 and 59.[11] CFS is less prevalent among children and adolescents than adults.[9] Blood relatives of people who have CFS appear to be more predisposed.[12][87] There is no direct evidence that CFS is contagious, though it is seen in members of the same family; this is believed to be a familial or genetic link but more research is required for a definitive answer.[88]

A systematic review in 2008 included 11 primary studies that had assessed various demographic, medical, psychological, social and environmental factors to predict the development of CFS, and found many had reported significant associations to CFS.[89] The reviewers concluded that the lack of generalizability and replication between studies meant that "none of the identified factors appear suitable for the timely identification of patients at risk of developing CFS/ME within clinical practice."

Differential diagnoses

Certain medical conditions can cause chronic fatigue and must be ruled out before a diagnosis of CFS can be given. Hypothyroidism, anemia, diabetes and certain psychiatric disorders are a few of the diseases that must be ruled out if the patient presents with appropriate symptoms.[15][17][90]

People with fibromyalgia (FM, or fibromyalgia syndrome, FMS) have muscle pain and sleep disturbances. Fatigue and muscle pain occurs frequently in the initial phase of various hereditary muscle disorders and in several autoimmune, endocrine and metabolic syndromes; and are frequently labelled as CFS or fibromyalgia in the absence of obvious biochemical/metabolic abnormalities and neurological symptoms.[citation needed] Multiple chemical sensitivity, Gulf War syndrome and post-polio syndrome have symptoms similar to those of CFS,[91][92] and the last is also theorized to have a common pathophysiology.[92]

Although post-Lyme syndrome and CFS share many features/symptoms, a study found that patients of the former experience more cognitive impairment and the patients of the latter experience more flu-like symptoms.[93]

A 2006 review found that there was a lack of literature to establish the discriminant validity of undifferentiated somatoform disorder from CFS. The author stated that there is a need for proponents of chronic fatigue syndrome to distinguish it from undifferentiated somatoform disorder. The author also mentioned that the experience of fatigue as exclusively physical and not mental is captured by the definition of somatoform disorder but not CFS.[94] Hysterical diagnoses are not merely diagnoses of exclusion but require criteria to be met on the positive grounds of both primary and secondary gain.[95] Depressive symptoms seen in CFS may be differentially diagnosed from primary depression due to the absence of anhedonia and la belle indifference, guilt, and the presence of somatic symptoms such as sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, and exercise intolerance with postexertional exacerbation of symptoms.[90]

Co-morbidity

Many CFS patients will also have, or appear to have, other medical problems or related diagnoses. Co-morbid fibromyalgia is common, where only patients with fibromyalgia show abnormal pain responses.[96] Fibromyalgia occurs in a large percentage of CFS patients between onset and the second year, and some researchers suggest fibromyalgia and CFS are related.[97] As previously mentioned, many CFS sufferers also experience symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, temporomandibular joint pain, headache including migraines, and other forms of myalgia. CFS patients have significantly higher rates of current mood disorders than the general population.[98] Feeling depressed is also a commonplace reaction to the losses caused by chronic illness[99] which can in some cases become a comorbid situational depression. Compared with the non-fatigued population, male CFS patients are more likely to experience chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS), and female CFS patients are also more likely to experience chronic pelvic pain.[100] CFS is significantly more common in women with endometriosis compared with women in the general USA population.[101]

History

Main article: History of chronic fatigue syndrome

In 1934 an outbreak then referred to as atypical poliomyelitis (at the time it was considered a form of polio) occurred at the Los Angeles County Hospital. It strongly resembled what is now called chronic fatigue syndrome and affected a large number of nurses and doctors.[102] In 1955 at the Royal Free Hospital in London, United Kingdom, another outbreak occurred that also affected mostly the hospital staff. Also resembling CFS, it was called both Royal Free disease and benign myalgic encephalomyelitis and formed the basis of descriptions by Acheson, Ramsay, and others.[103] In 1969 benign myalgic encephalomyelitis was first classified into the International Classification of Diseases under Diseases of the nervous system.[104]

The name chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) was used in the medical literature in 1987[105] to describe a condition resembling "chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection" but which presented no evidence of EBV as its cause. The initial case definition of CFS was published in 1988, "Chronic fatigue syndrome: a working case definition", (the Holmes definition), and displaced the name chronic Epstein-Barr virus syndrome. This research case definition was published after US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention epidemiologists examined patients at the Lake Tahoe outbreak.[16][106][107] In 2006 the CDC commenced a national program to educate the American public and health care professionals about CFS.[108]

A 2009 study published in the journal "Science", reported an association between a retrovirus xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) and CFS. The editors of Science, subsequently attached an "Editorial Expression of Concern" to the report to the effect that the validity of the study "is now seriously in question".[109] and in September 2011, the authors published a "Partial Retraction" of their 2009 findings,[110]. Also in September 2011 the Blood XMRV Scientific Research Working Group published a report which concluded "that currently available XMRV/P-MLV assays, including the assays employed by the three participating laboratories that previously reported positive results on samples from CFS patients and controls (2, 4), cannot reproducibly detect direct virus markers (RNA, DNA, or culture) or specific antibodies in blood samples from subjects previously characterized as XMRV/P-MLV positive (all but one with a diagnosis of CFS) or healthy blood donors."[111]

Research funding

In November 2006, an unofficial inquiry by an ad hoc group of parliamentarians in the United Kingdom, set up and chaired by former MP, Dr Ian Gibson, called the Group on Scientific Research into ME[112] was informed by a government minister that few good biomedical research proposals have been submitted to the Medical Research Council (MRC) in contrast to those for psychosocial research. They were also told by other scientists of proposals that have been rejected, with claims of bias against support for this type of research.

The MRC confirmed to the Group that, from April 2003 to November 2006, it has turned down 10 biomedical applications relating to CFS/ME and funded five applications relating to CFS/ME, mostly in the psychiatric/psychosocial domain.

In 2008, the MRC set up an expert group to consider how the MRC might encourage new high-quality research into CFS/ME and partnerships between researchers already working on CFS/ME and those in associated areas. It currently lists CFS/ME with a highlight notice, inviting researchers to develop high quality research proposals for funding.[113] In February 2010, the All-Party Parliamentary Group on ME (APPG on ME) produced a legacy paper, which welcomed the recent MRC initiative, but felt that there has been far too much emphasis in the past on psychological research with insufficient attention to biomedical research and that it is vital that further biomedical research be undertaken to help discover a cause and more effective forms of management for this disease.[114]

Society and culture

Economic impact

Reynolds et al. (2004), estimated that the illness caused about $20,000 per person with CFS in lost productivity which totals to $9.1 billion per year in the United States.[21][115] A 2008 study estimated that the total annual cost burden of ME/CFS to society in the US was approximately $18.7 to $24.0 billion.[116]

Social issues

A study found that CFS patients report a heavy psychosocial burden.[117] A survey by the Tymes Trust reported that children with CFS often state that they struggle for recognition of their needs and/or they feel bullied by medical and educational professionals.[118] The ambiguity of the status of CFS as a medical condition may cause higher perceived stigma.[119]

Support groups

A study found that CFS patients in support groups reported no change in negative interactions compared to an improvement in negative interactions reported by those treated with Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.[120] Patients with greater amounts of negative interactions received worse social support on average than disease-free cancer patients or healthy controls which, in turn, led to greater fatigue severity and functional impairment than CBT-treated patients.[120]

Doctor-patient relations

Some in the medical community[who?] did not at first recognize CFS as a real condition, nor was there agreement on its prevalence.[121][122] There has been much disagreement over proposed causes, diagnosis, and treatment of the illness.[123][124][125][126][127] The context of contested causation may affect the lives of the individuals diagnosed with CFS, affecting the patient-doctor relationship, the doctor's confidence in their ability to diagnose and treat, ability to share issues and control in diagnosis with the patient, and raise problematic issues of reparation, compensation, and blame.[128] Disagreements over how the condition is dealt with by health care systems has resulted in an expensive and prolonged conflict for all involved.[122][129]

A major divide exists over whether funding for research and treatment should focus on physiological, psychological or psychosocial aspects of CFS. This division is especially great between patient groups and psychological and psychosocial treatment advocates in Great Britain.[127] In 2011, it was reported by the BBC this conflict had involved personal vilification and allegations of professional misconduct to professional societies and universities of researchers who were investigating possible psychiatric connections. One of these researchers, Simon Wessely, reported personal death threats, and others noted such vilification would lead researchers to abandon or avoid the area of study entirely, as few would want to undergo this "torrent of abuse." Charles Shepherd from the ME Association condemned the abuse of researchers but emphasised that the underlying frustration stems from government funding of research focusing almost exclusively on psychiatric, rather than biomedical, causes.[130]

Blood donation

Based on the possible link between CFS and XMRV, in 2010 a variety of national blood banks adopted measures to discourage or prohibit individuals diagnosed with CFS from donating blood, and decline donations when aware the potential donor had been diagnosed. Organizations adopting these or similar measures included the Canadian Blood Services,[131] the New Zealand Blood Service,[132], the Australian Red Cross Blood Service[133] and the American Association of Blood Banks,[134] In November 2010 the UK National Blood Service introduced a permanent deferral of donation from CFS patients based on the potential harm to those patients that may result from their giving blood.[135]

Controversy

Main article: Controversies related to chronic fatigue syndrome

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is an illness with a long history of controversies. There has been much contention over the etiology, pathophysiology,[89] nomenclature[136] and diagnostic criteria.[123][124] Controversies still exist over funding for research and treatment of physiological versus psychological and psychosocial aspects of the illness.[137] Historically, many professionals within the medical community were unfamiliar with CFS, or did not recognize it as a real condition, nor was there agreement on its prevalence or seriousness.[121][122][138] Contrasting viewpoints among CFS experts became apparent in 1993, when psychiatrists David and Wessely contested the WHO classification of CFS under diseases of the nervous system, arguing that it was a form of neurasthenia to be classified as a psychiatric condition.[139]

References

  1. ^ a b c Evangard B, Schacterie R.S., Komaroff A. L. (1999). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: new insights and old ignorance". Journal of Internal Medicine Nov;246 (5): 455–469. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.1999.00513.x. PMID 10583715. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119095441/PDFSTART. Retrieved 2009-10-21. 
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Diagnosing CFS". CDC. 2006-05-03. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/general/diagnosis/index.html. Retrieved 2009-01-22. 
  3. ^ Sanders P, Korf J (2008). "Neuroaetiology of chronic fatigue syndrome: an overview". World J. Biol. Psychiatry 9 (3): 165–71. doi:10.1080/15622970701310971. PMID 17853290. 
  4. ^ "International Classification of Diseases (and Related Health Problems)". 7th Edition, Version for 2007 - Chapter VI, G93.3. http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gg90.htm+g933. 
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Afari N, Buchwald D (2003). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: a review". Am J Psychiatr 160 (2): 221–36. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.221. PMID 12562565. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/160/2/221. 
  6. ^ Chronic Fatigue and Its Syndromes by Simon Wessely, Matthew Hotopf and Michael Sharpe (Jan 15, 1998). ISBN 0192630466. 
  7. ^ a b c Wyller VB (2007). "The chronic fatigue syndrome--an update". Acta neurologica Scandinavica. Supplementum 187: 7–14. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00840.x. PMID 17419822. 
  8. ^ a b c Ranjith G (2005). "Epidemiology of chronic fatigue syndrome". Occup Med (Lond) 55 (1): 13–29. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqi012. PMID 15699086. 
  9. ^ a b c d e "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Basic Facts". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. May 9, 2006. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/general/index.html. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  10. ^ a b "Chronic fatigue syndrome". The National Health Service. 2009-06-29. http://www.nhs.uk/me/introduction.aspx. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  11. ^ a b Gallagher AM, Thomas JM, Hamilton WT, White PD (2004). "Incidence of fatigue symptoms and diagnoses presenting in UK primary care from 1990 to 2001". J R Soc Med 97 (12): 571–5. doi:10.1258/jrsm.97.12.571. PMC 1079668. PMID 15574853. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1079668. 
  12. ^ a b c "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Who's at risk?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March 10, 2006. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/cfscausesHCP.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  13. ^ a b Anderson JS, Ferrans CE (June 1997). "The quality of life of persons with chronic fatigue syndrome". J Nerv Ment Dis 185 (6): 359–67. doi:10.1097/00005053-199706000-00001. PMID 9205421. 
  14. ^ a b Ottati, Victor C. (2002). The social psychology of politics. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. pp. 159–160. ISBN 0-306-46723-2. http://books.google.com/?id=OYrErhPFFLwC&dq=+The+social+psychology+of+politics+By+Victor+C.+Ottati&printsec=frontcover&q=name%20change%20survey%20results. Retrieved 2009 08 11. 
  15. ^ a b c Fukuda K, Straus S, Hickie I, Sharpe M, Dobbins J, Komaroff A (15 December 1994). "The chronic fatigue syndrome: a comprehensive approach to its definition and study. International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Study Group". Ann Intern Med 121 (12): 953–9. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-121-12-199412150-00009 (inactive 2009-11-27). PMID 7978722. http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/121/12/953. 
  16. ^ a b Holmes G, Kaplan J, Gantz N, Komaroff A, Schonberger L, Straus S, Jones J, Dubois R, Cunningham-Rundles C, Pahwa S (1988). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: a working case definition,". Ann Intern Med 108 (3): 387–9. PMID 2829679.  Details
  17. ^ a b c Guideline 53: Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (or encephalopathy). London: = National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. 2007. ISBN 1846294533. http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG53. 
  18. ^ Sharpe M, Archard L, Banatvala J, Borysiewicz L, Clare A, David A, Edwards R, Hawton K, Lambert H, Lane R (1991). "A report--chronic fatigue syndrome: guidelines for research". J R Soc Med 84 (2): 118–21. PMC 1293107. PMID 1999813. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1293107. Synopsis by Oxford criteria for the diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome at GPnotebook
  19. ^ Carruthers BM, Jain AK, De Meirleir KL, Peterson DL, Klimas NG, Lerner AM, Bested AC, Flor-Henry P, Joshi P, Powles ACP, Sherkey JA, van de Sande MI (2003). "Myalgic encephalomyalitis/chronic fatigue syndrome: Clinical working definition, diagnostic and treatment protocols" (PDF). Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 11 (1): 7–97. doi:10.1300/J092v11n01_02. http://www.cfids-cab.org/cfs-inform/CFS.case.def/carruthers.etal03.pdf. 
  20. ^ a b Reeves WC, Lloyd A, Vernon SD, Klimas N, Jason LA, Bleijenberg G, Evengard B, White PD, Nisenbaum R, Unger ER (2003). "Identification of ambiguities in the 1994 chronic fatigue syndrome research case definition and recommendations for resolution". BMC Health Serv Res 3 (1): 25. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-3-25. PMC 317472. PMID 14702202. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=317472. 
  21. ^ a b c Jason LA, Corradi K, Torres-Harding S, Taylor RR, King C (March 2005). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: the need for subtypes". Neuropsychol Rev 15 (1): 29–58. doi:10.1007/s11065-005-3588-2. PMID 15929497. 
  22. ^ Whistler T, Unger ER, Nisenbaum R, Vernon SD (December 2003). "Integration of gene expression, clinical, and epidemiologic data to characterize Chronic Fatigue Syndrome". J Transl Med 1 (1): 10. doi:10.1186/1479-5876-1-10. PMC 305360. PMID 14641939. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=305360. 
  23. ^ Kennedy G, Abbot NC, Spence V, Underwood C, Belch JJ (February 2004). "The specificity of the CDC-1994 criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome: comparison of health status in three groups of patients who fulfill the criteria". Ann Epidemiol 14 (2): 95–100. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2003.10.004. PMID 15018881. 
  24. ^ Aslakson E, Vollmer-Conna U, White PD (April 2006). "The validity of an empirical delineation of heterogeneity in chronic unexplained fatigue". Pharmacogenomics 7 (3): 365–73. doi:10.2217/14622416.7.3.365. PMID 16610947. 
  25. ^ a b c d Clark C, Buchwald D, MacIntyre A, Sharpe M, Wessely S (January 2002). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: a step towards agreement". Lancet 359 (9301): 97–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07336-1. PMID 11809249. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602073361. 
  26. ^ NORD (June 23, 2008). "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelitis". National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc.. http://www.rarediseases.org/search/rdbdetail_abstract.html?disname=Chronic%20Fatigue%20Syndrome/Myalgic%20Encephalomyelitis. Retrieved 2008-07-01. 
  27. ^ Donoghue, PJ; Siegel ME (1992). Sick And Tired Of Feeling Sick And Tired: Living with Invisible Chronic Illness. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 15. ISBN 0393034089. http://books.google.com/?id=8r1dnOxPwdEC&pg=PA15. Retrieved 2008-09-17. 
  28. ^ Sharpe M (2002). "The report of the Chief Medical Officer's CFS/ME working group: what does it say and will it help?". Clin Med 2 (5): 427–9. PMID 12448589. 
  29. ^ Tuller, D (2007-07-17). "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome No Longer Seen as "Yuppie Flu"". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/17/science/17fatigue.html. Retrieved 2008-10-23. 
  30. ^ a b c Whiting P, Bagnall AM, Sowden AJ, Cornell JE, Mulrow CD, Ramirez G (September 2001). "Interventions for the treatment and management of chronic fatigue syndrome: a systematic review". JAMA 286 (11): 1360–8. doi:10.1001/jama.286.11.1360. PMID 11560542. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/286/11/1360. 
  31. ^ Royal Colleges of Physicians, Psychiatrists and General Practitioners (1996). Chronic fatigue syndrome; Report of a joint working group of the Royal Colleges of Physicians, Psychiatrists and General Practitioners. London, UK: Royal College of Physicians of London. ISBN 1-86016-046-8. 
  32. ^ "Report of the Working Party on CSF/ME to the Chief Medical Officer for England and Wales" (PDF). Department of Health. January 2002. Archived from the original on 2003-03-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20030322075848/http://www.doh.gov.uk/cmo/cfsmereport/cfsmereport.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-25. 
  33. ^ a b Salit IE (1997). "Precipitating factors for the chronic fatigue syndrome". J Psychiatr Res 31 (1): 59–65. doi:10.1016/S0022-3956(96)00050-7. PMID 9201648. 
  34. ^ Hatcher S, House A (2003). "Life events, difficulties and dilemmas in the onset of chronic fatigue syndrome: a case-control study" (PDF). Psychol Med 33 (7): 1185–92. doi:10.1017/S0033291703008274. PMID 14580073. http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/1226/1/house3.pdf. 
  35. ^ Theorell T, Blomkvist V, Lindh G, Evengard B (1999). "Critical life events, infections, and symptoms during the year preceding chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): an examination of CFS patients and subjects with a nonspecific life crisis". Psychosom Med. 61 (3): 304–10. PMID 10367610. 
  36. ^ Hickie I, Davenport T, Wakefield D, et al (2006). "Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study". BMJ 333 (7568): 575. doi:10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE. PMC 1569956. PMID 16950834. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1569956. 
  37. ^ "CDC, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), Symptoms". Cdc.gov. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/general/symptoms/index.html. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  38. ^ "CDC, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), Making a Diagnosis". Cdc.gov. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/toolkit/diagnosis.html. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  39. ^ McCully KK, Sisto SA, Natelson BH (1996). "Use of exercise for treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome". Sports Med 21 (1): 35–48. doi:10.2165/00007256-199621010-00004. PMID 8771284. 
  40. ^ Burton C, Knoop H, Popovic N, Sharpe M, Bleijenberg G (June 2009). "Reduced complexity of activity patterns in patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: a case control study". Biopsychosoc Med 3 (1): 7. doi:10.1186/1751-0759-3-7. PMC 2697171. PMID 19490619. http://www.bpsmedicine.com/content/3/1/7. 
  41. ^ Solomon L, Nisenbaum R, Reyes M, Papanicolaou DA, Reeves WC (2003). "Functional status of persons with chronic fatigue syndrome in the Wichita, Kansas, population". Health Qual Life Outcomes 1 (1): 48–58. doi:10.1186/1477-7525-1-48. PMC 239865. PMID 14577835. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=239865. 
  42. ^ Mark, Loveless, MD, congressional testimony of, May 12, 1995, as reported in Hillary Johnson. (1996). Osler's Web: Inside the Labyrinth of the Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Epidemic. Crown Publishers, New York. ISBN 0-517-70353-X. pp.364-365
  43. ^ "What's the clinical course of CFS?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010-06-21. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/general/symptoms/index.html. Retrieved 2011-04-25. 
  44. ^ Komaroff AL, Fagioli LR, Doolittle TH, et al. (September 1996). "Health status in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and in general population and disease comparison groups". Am. J. Med. 101 (3): 281–90. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00174-X. PMID 8873490. 
  45. ^ Ho-Yen DO, McNamara I (1991). "General practitioners' experience of the chronic fatigue syndrome". Br J Gen Pract 41 (349): 324–6. PMC 1371754. PMID 1777276. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1371754. 
  46. ^ Meeus M, Nijs J, Meirleir KD (2007). "Chronic musculoskeletal pain in patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome: A systematic review". Eur J Pain 11 (4): 377–386. doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2006.06.005. PMID 16843021. 
  47. ^ Vanness JM, Snell CR, Strayer DR, Dempsey L 4th, Stevens SR (2003). "Subclassifying chronic fatigue syndrome through exercise testing". Med Sci Sports Exerc 35 (6): 908–13. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000069510.58763.E8. PMID 12783037. 
  48. ^ Ross SD, Estok RP, Frame D, Stone LR, Ludensky V, Levine CB (2004). "Disability and chronic fatigue syndrome: a focus on function". Arch Intern Med 164 (10): 1098–107. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.10.1098. PMID 15159267. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/164/10/1098. 
  49. ^ Cockshell SJ, Mathias JL (January 2010). "Cognitive functioning in chronic fatigue syndrome: a meta-analysis". Psychol Med 40 (8): 1–15. doi:10.1017/S0033291709992054. PMID 20047703. 
  50. ^ Sanders, Patricia; Korf, Jakob (2008). "Neuroaetiology of chronic fatigue syndrome: an overview". The world journal of biological psychiatry : the official journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry 9 (3): 165–71. doi:10.1080/15622970701310971. PMID 17853290. 
  51. ^ Patarca-Montero R, Antoni M, Fletcher MA, Klimas NG (2001). "Cytokine and other immunologic markers in chronic fatigue syndrome and their relation to neuropsychological factors". Appl Neuropsychol 8 (1): 51–64. doi:10.1207/S15324826AN0801_7. PMID 11388124. 
  52. ^ Kuratsune H (June 2007). "[Overview of chronic fatigue syndrome focusing on prevalence and diagnostic criteria]" (in Japanese). Nippon Rinsho 65 (6): 983–90. PMID 17561686. 
  53. ^ Vercoulen JH, Swanink CM, Galama JM, et al (1998). "The persistence of fatigue in chronic fatigue syndrome and multiple sclerosis: development of a model". J Psychosom Res 45 (6): 507–17. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(98)00023-3. PMID 9859853. 
  54. ^ Rimes KA, Chalder T. (2005). "Treatments for chronic fatigue syndrome". Occupational Medicine 55 (1): 32–39. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqi015. PMID 15699088. 
  55. ^ a b c d e Chambers D, Bagnall AM, Hempel S, Forbes C (2006). "Interventions for the treatment, management and rehabilitation of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis: an updated systematic review". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 99 (10): 506–20. doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.10.506. PMC 1592057. PMID 17021301. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1592057. 
  56. ^ Raine R, Haines A, Sensky T, Hutchings A, Larkin K, Black N (2002). "Systematic review of mental health interventions for patients with common somatic symptoms: can research evidence from secondary care be extrapolated to primary care?". BMJ 325 (7372): 1082. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7372.1082. PMC 131187. PMID 12424170. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=131187. 
  57. ^ Reid S, Chalder T, Cleare A, Hotopf M, Wessely S. (2000). "Chronic fatigue syndrome". BMJ 320 (7230): 292–6. doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7230.292. PMC 1117488. PMID 10650029. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1117488. 
  58. ^ "Survey Summary Report 2008" (PDF). Action for ME. 2008. p. 13. http://www.afme.org.uk/res/img/resources/Survey%20Summary%20Report%202008.pdf. Retrieved 8 March 2010. 
  59. ^ Bjørkum, Torunn; Wang, Catharina E. A.; Waterloo, Knut (June 2009). "Pasienterfaringer med ulike tiltak ved kronisk utmattelsessyndrom [Patients' experience with treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome]" (in Norwegian). Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening 129 (12): 1214–6. doi:10.4045/tidsskr.09.35791. PMID 19521443. 
  60. ^ Van Houdenhove, B; Pae, CU, Luyten, P (2010 Feb). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: is there a role for non-antidepressant pharmacotherapy?". Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy 11 (2): 215–23. doi:10.1517/14656560903487744. PMID 20088743. 
  61. ^ a b National Center for Infectious Diseases (26 May 2006). "CFS Treatment Options". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/cfstreatment.htm. Retrieved 24 February 2010. 
  62. ^ Wolfe F; Chalmers A; Littlejohn GO & Salit I (1995). Fibromyalgia, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, and Repetitive Strain Injury: Current Concepts in Diagnosis, Management, Disability, and Health Economics. New York: Haworth Medical Press. p. 142. ISBN 1-56024-744-4. http://books.google.com/?id=Da0jf7agNvgC&pg=PA142. 
  63. ^ Price JR, Mitchell E, Tidy E, Hunot V (2008). Price, Jonathan R. ed. "Cognitive behaviour therapy for chronic fatigue syndrome in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD001027. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001027.pub2. PMID 18646067. 
  64. ^ Malouff JM, et al. (June 2008). "Efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic fatigue syndrome: a meta-analysis". Clin Psychol Rev 28 (5): 736–45. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.004. PMID 18060672. 
  65. ^ Wiborg JF, Knoop H, Stulemeijer M, Prins JB, Bleijenberg G (January 2010). "How does cognitive behaviour therapy reduce fatigue in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome? The role of physical activity". Psychol Med 40 (8): 1–7. doi:10.1017/S0033291709992212. PMID 20047707. 
  66. ^ a b White PD, Sharpe MC, Chalder T, DeCesare JC, Walwyn R (2007). "Protocol for the PACE trial: A randomised controlled trial of adaptive pacing, cognitive behaviour therapy, and graded exercise as supplements to standardised specialist medical care versus standardised specialist medical care alone for patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis or encephalopathy". BMC Neurol 7: 6. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-7-6. PMC 2147058. PMID 17397525. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2377/7/6. 
  67. ^ Twisk FN, Maes M (August 2009). "A review on cognitive behavorial therapy (CBT) and graded exercise therapy (GET) in myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) / chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): CBT/GET is not only ineffective and not evidence-based, but also potentially harmful for many patients with ME/CFS". Neuro Endocrinol Lett 30 (3): 284–299. PMID 19855350. http://node.nel.edu/?node_id=8918. 
  68. ^ Edmonds M, McGuire H, Price J (2004). Price, Jonathan R. ed. "Exercise therapy for chronic fatigue syndrome". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003200. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003200.pub2. PMID 15266475. 
  69. ^ a b Bjørkum T, Wang CE, Waterloo K (June 2009). "[Patients' experience with treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome]". Tidsskr nor Laegeforen 129 (12): 1214–6. doi:10.4045/tidsskr.09.35791. PMID 19521443. 
  70. ^ "Report of the Working Party on CFS/ME to the Chief Medical Officer for England and Wales". Department of Health. January 2002. http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4064840.  alternative URL: [1]
  71. ^ Nijs J, Paul L, Wallman K (April 2008). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: an approach combining self-management with graded exercise to avoid exacerbations". J Rehabil Med 40 (4): 241–7. doi:10.2340/16501977-0185. PMID 18382818. 
  72. ^ Nijs J, Paul L, Wallman K (April 2008). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: an approach combining self-management with graded exercise to avoid exacerbations". J Rehabil Med 40 (4): 241–7. doi:10.2340/16501977-0185. PMID 18382818. http://jrm.medicaljournals.se/files/pdf/40/4/937.pdf. 
  73. ^ Wallman KE, Morton AR, Goodman C, Grove R, Guilfoyle AM (May 2004). "Randomised controlled trial of graded exercise in chronic fatigue syndrome". Med. J. Aust. 180 (9): 444–8. PMID 15115421. http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/180_09_030504/wal10613_fm.html. 
  74. ^ Nijs J, Meeus M, De Meirleir K. (August 2006). "Chronic musculoskeletal pain in chronic fatigue syndrome: recent developments and therapeutic implications". Man Ther. 3 (9): 187–91. doi:10.1016/j.math.2006.03.008. PMID 16781183. 
  75. ^ Prins JB, van der Meer JW, Bleijenberg G (2006). "Chronic fatigue syndrome". Lancet 367 (9507): 346–55. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68073-2. PMID 16443043. 
  76. ^ Covelli V, Passeri ME, Leogrande D, Jirillo E, Amati L (2005). "Drug targets in stress-related disorders". Curr. Med. Chem. 12 (15): 1801–9. doi:10.2174/0929867054367202. PMID 16029148. 
  77. ^ Jackson JL, O'Malley PG, Kroenke K (March 200). "Antidepressants and cognitive-behavioral therapy for symptom syndromes". CNS Spectr 11 (3): 212–22. PMID 16575378. http://www.cnsspectrums.com/aspx/articledetail.aspx?articleid=417. 
  78. ^ Pae CU, Marks DM, Patkar AA, Masand PS, Luyten P, Serretti A (July 2009). "Pharmacological treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome: focusing on the role of antidepressants". Expert Opin Pharmacother 10 (10): 1561–70. doi:10.1517/14656560902988510. PMID 19514866. 
  79. ^ National Center for Infectious Diseases (3 May 2006). "Symptoms of CFS". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/cfssymptoms.htm. Retrieved 24 February 2010. 
  80. ^ Cho HJ, Hotopf M, Wessely S (2005). "The placebo response in the treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Psychosom Med 67 (2): 301–13. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000156969.76986.e0. PMID 15784798. http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content/full/67/2/301. Retrieved 2008-12-12. 
  81. ^ Cairns R, Hotopf M (2005). "A systematic review describing the prognosis of chronic fatigue syndrome". Occupational medicine (Oxford, England) 55 (1): 20–31. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqi013. PMID 15699087. http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/55/1/20. 
  82. ^ Joyce J, Hotopf M, Wessely S. (1997). "The prognosis of chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome: a systematic review". QJM 90 (3): 223–33. doi:10.1093/qjmed/90.3.223. PMID 9093600. 
  83. ^ "CFS Toolkit for Health Care Professionals: Basic CFS Overview" (PDF file, 31 KB). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 2008-03-08. http://web.archive.org/web/20080308060541/http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/pdf/Basic_Overview.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-19. 
  84. ^ Smith WR, Noonan C, Buchwald D (2006). "Mortality in a cohort of chronically fatigued patients". Psychological medicine 36 (9): 1301–6. doi:10.1017/S0033291706007975. PMID 16893495. 
  85. ^ Jason LA, Corradi K, Gress S, Williams S, Torres-Harding S (2006). "Causes of death among patients with chronic fatigue syndrome". Health care for women international 27 (7): 615–26. doi:10.1080/07399330600803766. PMID 16844674. 
  86. ^ Dinos, Sokratis; Khoshaba, Bernadette; Ashby, Deborah; White, Peter D.; Nazroo, James; Wessely, Simon; Bhui, Kamaldeep S. (2009). "A systematic review of chronic fatigue, its syndromes and ethnicity: prevalence, severity, co-morbidity and coping". International journal of epidemiology 38 (6): 1554–70. doi:10.1093/ije/dyp147. PMID 19349479. 
  87. ^ Walsh CM, Zainal NZ, Middleton SJ, Paykel ES (2001). "A family history study of chronic fatigue syndrome". Psychiatr Genet 11 (3): 123–8. doi:10.1097/00041444-200109000-00003. PMID 11702053. 
  88. ^ "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Who's at Risk?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. May 3, 2006. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/cfsatrisk.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-12. 
  89. ^ a b Hempel S, Chambers D, Bagnall AM, Forbes C (July 2008). "Risk factors for chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis: a systematic scoping review of multiple predictor studies". Psychol Med 38 (7): 915–26. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001602. PMID 17892624. 
  90. ^ a b Craig, T and Kakumanu S (Mar 2002). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: evaluation and treatment". Am Fam Physician. 65 (6): 1083–90. PMID 11925084. http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020315/1083.html. 
  91. ^ Vojdani A, Thrasher J (2004). "Cellular and humoral immune abnormalities in Gulf War veterans". Environ Health Perspect 112 (8): 840–6. doi:10.1289/ehp.6881. PMC 1242010. PMID 15175170. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1242010. 
  92. ^ a b Bruno RL, Creange SJ, Frick NM (1998). "Parallels between post-polio fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome: a common pathophysiology?". Am J Med. 105 (3A): 66S–73S. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00161-2. PMID 9790485. 
  93. ^ Gaudino EA, Coyle PK, Krupp LB (1997). "Post-Lyme syndrome and chronic fatigue syndrome. Neuropsychiatric similarities and differences". Arch Neurol 54 (11): 1372–6. PMID 9362985. 
  94. ^ van Staden WC (2006). "Conceptual issues in undifferentiated somatoform disorder and chronic fatigue syndrome". Curr Opin Psychiatry 19 (6): 613–8. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000245753.83502.d9. PMID 17012941. 
  95. ^ Jenkins R, Mowbray J, ed. Post-viral Fatigue Syndrome. 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
  96. ^ Bradley LA, McKendree-Smith NL, Alarcon GS (2000). "Pain complaints in patients with fibromyalgia versus chronic fatigue syndrome". Curr Rev Pain 4 (2): 148–57. PMID 10998728. 
  97. ^ Friedberg F, Jason LA (2001). "Chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia: clinical assessment and treatment". J Clin Psychol. 57 (4): 433–55. doi:10.1002/jclp.1040. PMID 11255201. 
  98. ^ Prins J, Bleijenberg G, Rouweler EK, van der Meer J. (2005). "Effect of psychiatric disorders on outcome of cognitive-behavioural therapy for chronic fatigue syndrome". Br J Psychiatry 187 (2): 184–5. doi:10.1192/bjp.187.2.184. PMID 16055833. 
  99. ^ Frank RG, Chaney JM, Clay DL, Shutty MS, Beck NC, Kay DR, Elliott TR, Grambling S (1992). "Dysphoria: a major symptom factor in persons with disability or chronic illness". Psychiatry Res 43 (3): 231–41. doi:10.1016/0165-1781(92)90056-9. PMID 1438622. 
  100. ^ Aaron, Leslie A.; Herrell, Richard; Ashton, Suzanne; Belcourt, Megan; Schmaling, Karen; Goldberg, Jack; Buchwald, Dedra (2001). "Comorbid Clinical Conditions in Chronic Fatigue: A Co-Twin Control Study". Journal of general internal medicine 16 (1): 24–31. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2001.03419.x. PMC 1495162. PMID 11251747. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1495162. 
  101. ^ Sinaii N, Cleary SD, Ballweg ML, Nieman LK, Stratton P (2002). "High rates of autoimmune and endocrine disorders, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and atopic diseases among women with endometriosis: a survey analysis". Hum Reprod 17 (10): 2715–24. doi:10.1093/humrep/17.10.2715. PMID 12351553. http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/10/2715. 
  102. ^ Patarca-Montero R (2004). Medical Etiology, Assessment, and Treatment of Chronic Fatigue and Malaise. Haworth Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 078902196X. 
  103. ^ Acheson ED (1959). "The clinical syndrome variously called benign myalgic encephalomyelitis, Iceland disease and epidemic neurоmyasthaenia" (PDF). Am. J. Med. 26 (4): 569–95. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(59)90280-3. PMID 13637100. http://www.meresearch.org.uk/information/keypubs/Acheson_AmJMed.pdf. 
  104. ^ International Classification of Diseases. I. World Health Organization. 1969. pp. 158, (vol 2, pp. 173). 
  105. ^ Buchwald D, Sullivan JL, Komaroff AL (May 1987). "Frequency of 'chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection' in a general medical practice". JAMA 257 (17): 2303–7. doi:10.1001/jama.257.17.2303. PMID 3033338. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/257/17/2303. 
  106. ^ Sharpe M & Campling F (2000). Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS/ME): TheFacts. Oxford: Oxford Press. pp. 14, 15. ISBN 0-19-263049-0. http://books.google.com/?id=_LqAIK616lgC&pg=PA14. Retrieved 2008-04-02. 
  107. ^ Packard RM, Berkelman RL, Brown PJ, Frumkin H (2004). Emerging Illnesses and Society. JHU Press. p. 156. ISBN 0801879426. http://books.google.com/?id=EGNFPZrKIKMC&pg=PA156. Retrieved 2008-04-02. 
  108. ^ "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Mission / Goals". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. May 11, 2006. http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/mission.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-18. 
  109. ^ Alberts, B. (2011). "Editorial Expression of Concern". Science 333 (6038): 35. doi:10.1126/science.1208542. PMID 21628391. 
  110. ^ Silverman, R.; Das Gupta, J.; Lombardi, V. C.; Ruscetti, F. W.; Pfost, M. A.; Hagen, K. S.; Peterson, D. L.; Ruscetti, S. K. et al. (2011). "Partial Retraction". Science. doi:10.1126/science.1212182. 
  111. ^ Simmons, G.; Glynn, S. A.; Komaroff, A. L.; Mikovits, J. A.; Tobler, L. H.; Hackett, J.; Tang, N.; Switzer, W. M. et al. (2011). "Failure to Confirm XMRV/MLVs in the Blood of Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Multi-Laboratory Study". Science. doi:10.1126/science.1213841. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2011/09/21/science.1213841.full.pdf. 
  112. ^ "Erythos.com" (PDF). http://www.erythos.com/gibsonenquiry/Docs/ME_Inquiry_Report.pdf. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  113. ^ "MRC.ac.uk". MRC.ac.uk. http://www.mrc.ac.uk/Ourresearch/ResearchInitiatives/CFSME/index.htm. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  114. ^ "APPGME.org.uk" (PDF). http://appgme.org.uk/Downloads/appg_interim_report_v2.pdf. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  115. ^ Reynolds, Kenneth J.; Vernon, Suzanne D.; Bouchery, Ellen; Reeves, William C. (2004). "The economic impact of chronic fatigue syndrome". Cost effectiveness and resource allocation : C/E 2 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/1478-7547-2-4. PMC 449736. PMID 15210053. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=449736. 
  116. ^ Jason LA, Benton MC, Valentine L, Johnson A, Torres-Harding S (2008). "The Economic impact of ME/CFS: Individual and societal costs". Dyn Med 7: 6. doi:10.1186/1476-5918-7-6. PMC 2324078. PMID 18397528. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2324078. 
  117. ^ Van Houdenhove B, Neerinckx E, Onghena P, Vingerhoets A, Lysens R, Vertommen H (2002). "Daily hassles reported by chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia patients in tertiary care: a controlled quantitative and qualitative study". Psychother Psychosom 71 (4): 207–13. doi:10.1159/000063646. PMID 12097786. 
  118. ^ Colby J (2007). "Special problems of children with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and the enteroviral link". J Clin Pathol 60 (2): 125–8. doi:10.1136/jcp.2006.042606. PMC 1860612. PMID 16935964. 16935964. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1860612. 
  119. ^ Looper KJ, Kirmayer LJ (2004). "Perceived stigma in functional somatic syndromes and comparable medical conditions". J Psychosom Res 57 (4): 373–8. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2004.03.005. PMID 15518673. 
  120. ^ a b Prins JB, Bos E, Huibers MJ, Servaes P, van der Werf SP, van der Meer JW, Bleijenberg G (2004). "Social support and the persistence of complaints in chronic fatigue syndrome". Psychother Psychosom 73 (3): 174–82. doi:10.1159/000076455. PMID 15031590. 
  121. ^ a b Wallace, PG; Sharpe, M. (October 1991). "Post-viral fatigue syndrome. Epidemiology: a critical review" (PDF). Br Med Bull. 47 (4): 942–951. PMID 1794092. http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/4/942.full.pdf. 
  122. ^ a b c Mounstephen, A.; Sharpe, M. (1997). "Chronic fatigue syndrome and occupational health". Occupational Medicine 47 (4): 217–27. doi:10.1093/occmed/47.4.217. PMID 9231495. 
  123. ^ a b Hooge J (1992). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: cause, controversy and care". Br J Nurs 1 (9): 440–1, 443, 445–6. PMID 1446147. 
  124. ^ a b Sharpe M (1996). "Chronic fatigue syndrome". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 19 (3): 549–73. doi:10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70305-1. PMID 8856816. 
  125. ^ Denz-Penhey H, Murdoch JC (1993). "General practitioners acceptance of the validity of chronic fatigue syndrome as a diagnosis". N. Z. Med. J. 106 (953): 122–4. PMID 8474729. 
  126. ^ Greenlee JE, Rose JW (2000). "Controversies in neurological infectious diseases". Semin Neurol 20 (3): 375–86. doi:10.1055/s-2000-9429. PMID 11051301. 
  127. ^ a b Horton-Salway M (2007). "The ME Bandwagon and other labels: constructing the genuine case in talk about a controversial illness". Br J Soc Psychol 46 (Pt 4): 895–914. doi:10.1348/014466607X173456. PMID 17535450. 
  128. ^ Engel CC, Adkins JA, Cowan DN (2002). "Caring for medically unexplained physical symptoms after toxic environmental exposures: effects of contested causation". Environ. Health Perspect. 110 Suppl 4 (Suppl 4): 641–7. PMC 1241219. PMID 12194900. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1241219. 
  129. ^ Dumit, J. (2005-08-08). "Illnesses you have to fight to get: facts as forces in uncertain, emergent illnesses". Soc Sci Med. Feb;62 (3): 577–90. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.018. PMID 16085344. 
  130. ^ "'Torrent of abuse' hindering ME research". BBC. 2011-07-29. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14326514. Retrieved 2011-07-31. 
  131. ^ "No blood from chronic fatigue donors: agency". CBC. 2010-04-07. http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2010/04/07/blood-donations-chronic-fatigue-virus.html. Retrieved 2010-06-25. 
  132. ^ Atkinson, K (2010-04-21). "Chronic Fatigue Set To Disqualify Blood Donors". Voxy.co.nz. http://www.voxy.co.nz/national/chronic-fatigue-set-disqualify-blood-donors/5/45805. Retrieved 2010-06-25. 
  133. ^ "Blood Service updates CFS donor policy". Australian Red Cross Blood Service. 2010-04-23. http://www.donateblood.com.au/news-events/national-news-events/blood-service-updates-cfs-donor-policy. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  134. ^ "Recommendation on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Blood Donation". American Association of Blood Banks. 2010-06-18. http://www.aabb.org/pressroom/Pages/cfsrecommendation.aspx. Retrieved 2010-06-25. 
  135. ^ NHS Blood and Transplant (2010-11-05). "ME/CFS sufferers permanently deferred from giving blood". http://www.nhsbt.nhs.uk/news/2010/newsrelease071010.html. Retrieved 2011-10-09. 
  136. ^ Tuller, D (2007-07-17). "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome No Longer Seen as ‘Yuppie Flu’". The New York Times. http://health.nytimes.com/ref/health/healthguide/esn-chronicfatigue-ess.html. Retrieved 2009-06-15. 
  137. ^ Couper J (2000). "Chronic fatigue syndrome and Australian psychiatry: lessons from the UK experience". Aust N Z J Psychiatry 34 (5): 762–9. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2000.00810.x. PMID 11037362. 
  138. ^ Jason LA, Richman JA, Friedberg F, Wagner L, Taylor R, Jordan KM (1997). "Politics, science, and the emergence of a new disease. The case of chronic fatigue syndrome". Am Psychol 52 (9): 973–83. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.973. PMID 9301342. 
  139. ^ David A, Wessely S (1993). "Chronic fatigue, ME, and ICD-10". The Lancet 342 (8881): 1247–8. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)92234-K. PMID 7901572. 

Further reading

External links

v · d · eChronic fatigue syndrome
Medical issues
Society and history

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Поможем написать курсовую

Look at other dictionaries:

  • chronic fatigue syndrome — n. a debilitating medical condition without an apparent cause, characterized by prolonged severe fatigue, muscle pain, impaired memory, etc …   English World dictionary

  • Chronic fatigue syndrome — Die Neutralität dieses Artikels oder Abschnitts ist umstritten. Eine Begründung steht auf der Diskussionsseite …   Deutsch Wikipedia

  • Chronic fatigue syndrome — A debilitating and complex disorder characterized by profound fatigue of six months or longer duration that is not improved by bed rest and that may be worsened by physical or mental activity. Persons with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) most… …   Medical dictionary

  • chronic fatigue syndrome — N UNCOUNT Chronic fatigue syndrome is an illness that is thought to be caused by a virus, and which affects people for a long period of time. Its symptoms include tiredness and aching muscles. The abbreviation CFS is often used. Syn: ME …   English dictionary

  • Chronic fatigue syndrome treatment — Treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is variable and uncertain, and the condition is primarily managed rather than cured.[1] Only two treatments, cognitive behavioral therapy and graded exercise therapy, have demonstrated reproducible… …   Wikipedia

  • Chronic fatigue syndrome management — Many patients do not fully recover from chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) [cite journal |author=Rimes KA, Chalder T |title=Treatments for chronic fatigue syndrome |journal=Occup Med (Lond) |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=32–9 |year=2005 |month=Jan… …   Wikipedia

  • Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Advisory Committee — The Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Advisory Committee (CFSAC) was formed in response to the use of funds by the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention in the study of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). The CFSAC was charted under the… …   Wikipedia

  • Chronic fatigue syndrome outbreaks — There have been over fifty documented outbreaks of a disease that was identified as myalgic encephalomyelitis [Parish JG, Early outbreaks of epidemic neuromyasthenia , Postgraduate Medical Journal, 1978, Vol 54, 711 717] cite book |author=Ramsay… …   Wikipedia

  • chronic fatigue syndrome — noun A condition characterized by immune, endocrine and neurologic pathology whose main symptoms are extreme fatigue, extremely low stamina, muscle pain, lymph node swelling, post exertional Malaise, and cognitive difficulties. Syn: myalgic… …   Wiktionary

  • chronic fatigue syndrome — chronic fa tigue .syndrome n [U] an illness that makes you feel very tired and weak and can last for a long time …   Dictionary of contemporary English

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
… Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”