Congress of Racial Equality

African American topics
History  Atlantic slave trade · Maafa Slavery in the United States Military history of African Americans Jim Crow laws · Redlining Great Migration Civil Rights Movements 1896–1954 and 1955–1968 Second Great Migration Afrocentrism
Culture  African American studies Neighborhoods · Juneteenth Black Colleges and Universities Kwanzaa · Art · Museums Dance · Literature · Music · Schools
Religion  Black church Black liberation theology Black theology Doctrine of Father Divine American Society of Muslims Nation of Islam Black Hebrew Israelites The Nation of Gods and Earths Black Buddhist
Political movements  Pan-Africanism · Nationalism Black Power · Capitalism Conservatism · Populism · Leftism Black Panther Party · Garveyism
Civic and economic groups  NAACP · SCLC · CORE · SNCC NUL · Rights organizations ASALH · UNCF Thurgood Marshall College Fund NBCC · NPHC · The Links · NCNW
Sports  Negro league baseball CIAA · SIAC · MEAC · SWAC
Ethnic sub-divisions  Black Indians · Gullah · Igbo
Languages  English · Gullah Louisiana Creole French African American Vernacular English
Diaspora  Liberia · Nova Scotia · France Sierra Leone
Lists   African Americans African-American firsts First mayors · US state firsts Landmark African-American legislation African-American-related topics Topics related to Black and African people
Category · Portal
This box: view · talk · edit

Not to be confused with Commission for Racial Equality.

The Congress of Racial Equality or CORE was a U.S. civil rights organization that originally played a pivotal role for African-Americans in the Civil Rights Movement. Membership in CORE is still stated to be open to "anyone who believes that 'all people are created equal' and is willing to work towards the ultimate goal of true equality throughout the world.” Today, CORE advocates for controversial, conservative causes.

Founding

CORE was founded in Chicago in 1941 by James L. Farmer, Jr., George Houser, James R. Robinson, and Bernice Fisher. Bayard Rustin, while not a father of the organization, was, Farmer and Houser later said, "an uncle to CORE" and supported it greatly. The group had evolved out of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation, and sought to apply the principles of nonviolence as a tactic against segregation. The group's inspiration was Krishnalal Shridharani's book War Without Violence (1939, Harcourt Brace), which outlined Gandhi's step-by-step procedures for organizing people and mounting a nonviolent campaign. Shridharani, a popular writer and journalist as well as a vibrant and theatrical speaker, had been a protege of Gandhi and had been jailed in the Salt March. Gandhi had, in turn, been influenced by the writings of Henry David Thoreau. At the time of CORE's founding Gandhi was still engaged in non-violent resistance against British rule in India; CORE believed that nonviolent civil disobedience could also be used by African-Americans to challenge racial segregation in the United States.^[1]

In accordance with CORE's constitution and bylaws, in the early and mid-1960s, chapters were organized on a model similar to that of a democratic trade union, with monthly membership meetings, elected and usually unpaid officers, and numerous committees of volunteers. In the South, CORE's nonviolent direct action campaigns opposed "Jim Crow" segregation and job discrimination, and fought for voting rights. Outside the South, CORE focused on discrimination in employment and housing, and also in de facto school segregation.

Some CORE main leadership had strong disagreements with the Deacons for Defense and Justice over the Deacons' public threat to racist Southerners that they would use armed self-defense to protect CORE workers from racist organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan, in Louisiana during the 1960s. By the mid-1960s, Farmer was growing disenchanted with the emerging black nationalist sentiments within CORE — sentiments that, among other things, would quickly lead to the Black Panther Party — and he resigned in 1966, to be replaced by Floyd McKissick.^[2]

Civil rights campaigns

Congress of Racial Equality march in Washington DC on 22 September 1963 in memory of the children killed in the Birmingham bombings. The banner, which says "No more Birminghams", shows a picture of the aftermath of the bombing.

By 1961 CORE had 53 chapters throughout the United States. By 1963, most of the major urban centers of the Northeast, Midwest, and West Coast had one or more CORE chapters, including a growing number of chapters on college campuses. In the South, CORE had active chapters and projects in Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, South Carolina, and Kentucky.

Freedom Rides

Main article: Freedom Ride

On April 10, 1947, CORE sent a group of eight white (including James Peck, their publicity officer) and eight black men on what was to be a two-week Journey of Reconciliation through Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky in an effort to end segregation in interstate travel. The members of this group were arrested and jailed several times, but they received a great deal of publicity, and this marked the beginning of a long series of similar campaigns.^[3]

By the early 1960s, Farmer, who had taken a hiatus from leading the group, returned as its executive secretary and sought to repeat the 1947 journey, coining a new name for it: the Freedom Ride.

On May 4, 1961, participants journeyed to the deep South, this time including women as well as men and testing segregated bus terminals as well. The riders were met with severe violence. In Anniston, Alabama, one of the buses was fire-bombed and passengers were beaten by a white mob. White mobs also attacked Freedom Riders in Birmingham and Montgomery.^[4] The violence garnered national attention, sparking a summer of similar rides by CORE, SNCC and other Civil Rights organizations and thousands of ordinary citizens.^[5]

Desegregating Chicago's Schools

In 1960, the Chicago chapter of CORE began to challenge racial segregation in the Chicago Public Schools (CPS). By the late 1950s, the Board of Education's maintenance of the neighborhood school policy resulted in a pattern of racial segregation in the CPS. Predominantly black schools were situated in predominantly black neighborhoods on the south and west sides of the city, while predominantly white schools were located in predominantly white areas in the north, northwest and southwest sides of Chicago.

Many segregated schools were overcrowded, and in order to ease overcrowding, the Board instated double-shifts at some schools. Double-shifts meant that students in affected schools attended less than a full day of class. In another measure to alleviate overcrowding at some schools, the Board sanctioned the construction of mobile classroom units. Moreover, a significant proportion of students dropped out before finishing high school. Faculty was segregated, and many teachers in predominantly black schools lacked full-time teaching experience compared to teachers in white schools. In addition, the history curriculum did not mention African Americans. According to CORE, “school segregation [was] a damaging bacteria, a psychological handicap, which [festered] a disease generating widespread unemployment and crime in Chicago.” ^[6]

Between 1960 and 1963, CORE wrote letters about the conditions of schools to the Board of Education (headed by Superintendent Benjamin Willis), Mayor Richard J. Daley, the Illinois State House of Representatives and the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. In addition, CORE attended the Board's school budget hearings, speaking against segregation and asking for the Board to implement transfer plans to desegregate the schools. In July 1963, CORE staged a week-long sit-in and protest at the Board office in downtown Chicago in response to the Board's inaction. Finally, Board President Claire Roddewig and Willis agreed to meet with CORE to negotiate integration, but no significant changes came to the schools.

During the mid-1960s, CORE turned towards community involvement, seeking to equip Chicagoans with ways to challenge segregation. Freedom Houses, transfer petitions, community rallies and meetings served to educate Chicagoans about segregation and provide them with tools to circumnavigate the neighborhood school policy.

By 1966, the Chicago Freedom Movement, led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and Chicago's Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO), had assumed control over civil rights demonstrations and negotiations. While CORE was a member organization of the CCCO, it increasingly lost influence over desegregation efforts. And when the Chicago Freedom Movement met with representatives of the City to negotiate in the summer of 1966, they agreed on ten fair housing reforms but did not discuss reforms to desegregate the schools. While CORE played no role in the housing summit, it had shifted towards promoting and developing Black power in Chicago. By fall of 1966, CORE was no longer a civil rights organization, but a Black power organization. Changes in CORE's national leadership and continued inaction on behalf of the Board to desegregate the schools pushed CORE towards separatism and away from desegregation efforts. The chapter collapsed in October 1968.

March on Washington

Main article: March on Washington

A CORE sign displayed as Robert F. Kennedy speaks to a crowd outside the Department of Justice Building in June 1963

In 1963, the organization helped organize the famous March on Washington. On 28 August 1963, more than 250,000 people marched peacefully to the Lincoln Memorial to demand equal justice for all citizens under the law. At the end of the march Martin Luther King Jr. made his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

Freedom Summer

Main article: Freedom Summer

The following year, CORE, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) organized their Freedom Summer campaign - aimed principally ending the political disenfranchisement of African Americans in the Deep South. Volunteers from the three organizations decided to concentrate their efforts in Mississippi. In 1962 only 6.7 percent of African Americans in the state were registered to vote, the lowest percentage in the country. This involved the formation of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). Over 80,000 people joined the party and 68 delegates attended the Democratic Party Convention in Atlantic City and challenged the attendance of the all-white Mississippi representation.^[7]

CORE, SNCC and NAACP also established 30 Freedom Schools in towns throughout Mississippi. Volunteers taught in the schools and the curriculum now included black history, the philosophy of the civil rights movement. During the summer of 1964 over 3,000 students attended these schools and the experiment provided a model for future educational programs such as Head Start.

Freedom Schools were often targets of white mobs. So also were the homes of local African Americans involved in the campaign. That summer 30 black homes and 37 black churches were firebombed. Over 80 volunteers were beaten by white mobs or racist police officers. Three CORE activists, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner, were murdered by the Ku Klux Klan on 21 June 1964 (see Mississippi civil rights workers murders). These deaths created nation-wide publicity for the campaign. ^[8]

CORE since 1968

Since 1968, CORE has been led by National Chairman Roy Innis, who initially led the organization to strongly support Black Nationalism. Subsequent political developments within the organization led it turn more towards the right. CORE supported the presidential candidacy of Richard Nixon in 1968 and 1972. In 1970, CORE voiced its support for racially-separate, segregated schools.^[9] An article in Mother Jones magazine said of the modern organization that it "is better known among real civil rights groups for renting out its historic name to any corporation in need of a black front person. The group has taken money from the payday-lending industry, chemical giant (and original DDT manufacturer) Monsanto, and ExxonMobil."^[10] In his book, Not A Conspiracy Theory: How Business Propaganda Hijacks Democracy, Donald Gutstein wrote that "In recent years CORE used its African-American facade to work with conservative groups to attack organizations like Greenpeace and undermine environmental regulation. It’s fair to say that CORE was for sale to anyone with a need for visible black cheerleaders in its campaign."^[11]

Recently, on same sex marriage and black health in the U.S.: "When you say to society at large that you have to accept, not only accept our lifestyle, but promote it and put it on the same plane and equate it with traditional marriage, that's where we draw the line and we say 'no.' That's not something that is a civil right. That is not something that is a human right," said Niger Innis, national spokesman for CORE, and son of Roy Innis.^[12] COREcares, an HIV/AIDS advocacy, education and prevention program for black women, was dismantled due to pressure from Project 21. Innis is on the board of the conservative Project 21 organization. ^[13]

According to an interview given by James Farmer in 1993, "CORE has no functioning chapters; it holds no conventions, no elections, no meetings, sets no policies, has no social programs and does no fund-raising. In my opinion, CORE is fraudulent." ^[14]

CORE in Africa

During the 1970s, CORE supported Ugandan military dictator Idi Amin, who was awarded a life membership.^[14]

CORE has an African branch based in Uganda, with Fiona Kobusingye as is its director.^[15] Bringing attention to the malaria crisis is one of the organization's main activities, and it has championed the use of DDT to fight the disease, and it has partnered with a variety of conservative and libertarian think tanks in this effort.^[11] In 2007, CORE organized a 300-mile walk across Uganda to promote DDT-based interventions against malaria.^[16] CORE paid university students to participate in the walk, and then left them in Kampala at the walk's conclusion without means of returning home. "We feel used, dumped and taught to lie," said one student. CORE staff said the students were exaggerating.^[17]

See also

African American portal

• DePorres Club, an affiliate at Creighton University in Omaha
• The New York Foundation

Notes

1. ^ Meier and Rudwick, CORE, pp. 3-23.
2. ^ Meyer and Rudwick, CORE, pp. 374-408.
3. ^ Meier and Rudwick, CORE, pp. 33-39.
4. ^ Freedom Rides ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans
5. ^ Meier and Rudwick, CORE, pp. 135-145.
6. ^ CORE Rebuttal to CBS Standpoint editorial broadcast program, January 16, 1964, Chicago, CHM, CORE Papers, Box 2.
7. ^ Meier and Rudwick, CORE, pp. 269-281.
8. ^ Freedom Riders
9. ^ “CORE For School Bias,” Chicago Defender, September 15, 1970.
10. ^ Mencimer, Stephanie Mencimer (2009-11-10). "Tea Partiers' Next Target: The Climate Bill". Mother Jones. http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2009/11/tea-partiers-next-target-climate-bill. Retrieved 2009-11-10. 
11. ^ ^{a b} Gutstein, Donald (November 24, 2009). Not a Conspiracy Theory: How Business Propaganda Hijacks Democracy. Key Porter Books. ISBN 1554701910. . Relevant section excepted at: Gutstein, Donald (January 22, 2010). "Inside the DDT Propaganda Machine". The Tyee. http://thetyee.ca/Mediacheck/2010/01/22/DDTPropaganda/. Retrieved 22 January 2010. 
12. ^ "Republicans: In Search of Enthusiasm". Time. 1968-05-17. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838345-2,00.html. Retrieved 2010-04-30. 
13. ^ "Project 21 website". http://www.nationalcenter.org/bios/P21Speakers_Innis.html. 
14. ^ ^{a b} http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0317,charles,43542,1.html
15. ^ http://www.core-africa.org
16. ^ allAfrica.com: Uganda: Walking Kampala to Gulu to Fight Malaria (Page 1 of 1)
17. ^ allAfrica.com: Uganda: NGO Abandons Students in Kampala (Page 1 of 1)

References

• August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (1973; Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975). ISBN 0-252-00567-8
• James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Arbor House, 1985). ISBN 0-87795-624-3

External links

• Civil Rights Greensboro
• Congress of Racial Equality
• Civil Rights Movement Veterans
• "You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!" Web site for documentary of Journey of Reconciliation.
• Chris Mooney, Mother Jones, May/June 2005, "Black Gold?" - CORE, ExxonMobil, and "eco-imperialism"
• The Frank J. Miranda Papers document Miranda's activities as CORE activist and one-time chair of the Boston CORE chapter. Located in the Archives and Special Collections of the Northeastern University Libraries in Boston, MA.
• A History of Harlem CORE

Archives

• Congress of Racial Equality, Seattle Chapter, records. 1961-1970. 5 cubic feet (12 boxes). Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.