Salt Satyagraha

The Salt Satyagraha was a campaign of non-violent protest against the British salt tax in colonial India which began with the Salt March to Dandi on March 12, 1930. It was the first act of organized opposition to British rule after "Purna Swaraj", the declaration of independence by the Indian National Congress. Mahatma Gandhi led the Dandi march from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt, with growing numbers of Indians joining him along the way. When Gandhi broke the salt laws in Dandi at the conclusion of the march on April 6, 1930, it sparked large scale acts of civil disobedience against the British Raj salt laws by millions of Indians. ["Mass civil disobedience throughout India followed as millions broke the salt laws", from Dalton's introduction to Gandhi's "Civil Disobedience". Gandhi & Dalton, 1996, p. 72.]

Gandhi was arrested on May 5, 1930, just days before his planned raid on the Dharasana Salt Works. The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. [Dalton, p. 92.] Over 80,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha. [Johnson, p. 234.] The campaign had a significant effect on changing world and British attitudes toward Indian independence, [Johnson, p. 37.] [Ackerman & DuVall, p. 109.] and caused large numbers of Indians to actively join the fight for the first time, but failed to win major concessions from the British. [Ackerman & DuVall, pp. 106.]

The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi's principles of non-violent protest called "satyagraha", which he loosely translated as "truth-force." ["Its root meaning is holding onto truth, hence truth-force. I have also called it Love-force or Soul-force." Gandhi (2001), p. 6.] In early 1930 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning Indian independence from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organize the campaign. Gandhi chose the 1882 British Salt Act as the first target of satyagraha. The Salt March to Dandi, and the beating of hundreds of non-violent protesters in Dharasana, demonstrated the effective use of civil disobedience as a technique for fighting social and political injustice. [Martin, p. 35.] The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., and his fight for civil rights for blacks and other minority groups in the 1960's. [King, p. 23.]

Declaration of Independence

At midnight on December 31, 1929, the Indian National Congress raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore. The Indian National Congress, led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, publicly issued the Declaration of Independence, or "Purna Swaraj", on January 26, 1930. ["The pledge was taken publicly on January 26, 1930, thereafter celebrated annually as Purna Swaraj Day." Wolpert, 2001, p. 141.] The declaration included the readiness to withhold taxes, and the statement:

We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain "Purna Swaraj" or complete independence. [Wolpert, 1999, p. 204.]

The Congress Working Committee gave Gandhi the responsibility for organizing the first act of civil disobedience, with Congress itself ready to take charge after Gandhi's expected arrest. [Ackerman & DuVall, p. 83.] Gandhi's plan was to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax. [Dalton, p. 91.] Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offense. Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast, Indians were forced to purchase it from the colonial government.

Gandhi's choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress, [Dalton, p. 100.] ["Nehru, who had been skeptical about salt as the primary focus of the campaign, realized how wrong he was..." Johnson, p. 32.] though Gandhi had his reasons for choosing the salt tax. The salt tax was a deeply symbolic choice, since salt was used by nearly everyone in India. It represented 8.2% of the British Raj tax revenue, and most significantly hurt the poorest Indians the most. [Gandhi & Dalton, 1996, p. 72.] Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatize Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to the lowliest Indians. He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally. [Ackerman & DuVall, p. 83.]

atyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi, along with many members of the Congress Party, had a long-standing commitment to non-violent civil disobedience, which he termed "satyagraha", as the basis for achieving Indian independence. ["Gandhi's ideas about satyagraha and swaraj, moreover, galvanized the thinking of Congress cadres, most of whom by 1930 were committed to pursuing independence by non-violent means." Ackerman & DuVall, p. 108.] [Dalton, pp. 9-10.] Referring to the relationship between "satyagraha" and "Purna Swaraj", Gandhi saw "an inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree." [From "Hind Swaraj", Gandhi & Dalton, p. 15.] He wrote, "If the means employed are impure, the change will not be in the direction of progress but very likely in the opposite. Only a change brought about in our political condition by pure means can lead to real progress." [Forward to volume of Gokhale's speeches, "Gopal Krishna Gokahalenan Vyakhyanao" from Johnson, p. 118.]

Satyagraha is a synthesis of the Sanskrit words "Satya" (truth) and "Agraha" (holding firmly to). For Gandhi, satyagraha went far beyond mere "passive resistance" and became strength in practicing non-violent methods. In his words:

Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is born of Truth and Love or non-violence, and gave up the use of the phrase “passive resistance”, in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word “satyagraha”.... ["Satyagraha in South Africa, 1926" from Johnson, p. 73.]

His first significant attempt in India at leading mass satyagraha was the Non-cooperation movement from 1920-1922. Even though it succeeded in raising millions of Indians in protest against the British created Rowlatt Acts, violence broke out at Chauri Chaura, where a mob killed 22 unarmed policemen. Gandhi suspended the protest, against the opposition of other Congress members. He decided that Indians were not yet ready for successful non-violent resistance. [Dalton, p. 48.] The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was much more successful. It succeeded in paralysing the British government and winning significant concessions. More importantly, due to extensive press coverage, it scored a propaganda victory out of all proportion to its size. [Dalton, p. 93.] Gandhi later claimed that success at Bardoli confirmed his belief in Satyagraha and Swaraj: "It is only gradually that we shall come to know the importance of the victory gained at Bardoli...Bardoli has shown the way and cleared it. Swaraj lies on that route, and that alone is the cure..." [From "Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi" 41: 208-209, Dalton, p. 94.] Gandhi recruited heavily from the Bardoli Satyagraha participants for the Dandi march, which passed through many of the same villages that took part in the Bardoli protests. [Dalton, p. 95.]

Preparing to march

On February 5, newspapers reported that Gandhi would begin civil disobedience by defying the salt laws. The salt satyagraha would begin on March 12 and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the salt act on April 6. Gandhi chose April 6 to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason—it was the first day of "National Week", begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act. [Dalton, p. 113.]

Gandhi prepared the worldwide media for the march by issuing regular statements from Sabarmati, at his regular prayer meetings and through direct contact with the press. Expectations were heightened by his repeated statements anticipating arrest, and his increasingly dramatic language as the hour approached: "We are entering upon a life and death struggle, a holy war; we are performing an all-embracing sacrifice in which we wish to offer ourselves as oblation." [Dalton, p. 108.] Correspondents from dozens of Indian, European, and American newspapers, along with film companies, responded to the drama and began actively covering the event. [Dalton, p. 107.]

For the march itself, Gandhi wanted the strictest discipline and adherence to satyagraha and ahimsa. For that reason, he recruited the marchers not from Congress Party members, but from the residents of his own ashram, who were trained in Gandhi's strict standards of discipline. [Dalton, p. 104.] The 23 day march would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages. The route of the march, along with each evening's stopping place, was planned ahead of time based on recruitment potential, past contacts, and timing. Gandhi sent scouts to each village ahead of the march so he could plan his talks at each resting place, based on the needs of the local residents. [Dalton, p. 105.] Events at each village were scheduled and publicized in Indian and foreign press. [Ackerman & DuVall, p.85.]

wikisourcepar|First Letter to Lord Irwin|Full text of Gandhi's letter to Lord IrwinOn March 2, 1930 Gandhi wrote to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, offering to stop the march if Irwin met eleven demands, including reduction of land revenue assessments, cutting military spending, imposing a tariff on foreign cloth, and abolishing the salt tax. [Ackerman & DuVall, p. 83.] His strongest appeal to Irwin regarded the salt tax:

If my letter makes no appeal to your heart, on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co-workers of the Ashram as I can take, to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws. I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man's standpoint. As the Independence movement is essentially for the poorest in the land, the beginning will be made with this evil. ["Gandhi's letter to Irwin", Gandhi & Dalton, 1996, p. 78.]

wikisourcepar|On The Eve of Dandi March|Gandhi's speech on the eve of the Dandi MarchIrwin did not take the threat of a salt protest seriously, writing to London, "At present the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night." [Letter to London on February 20, 1930. Ackerman & DuVall, p.84.] After the Viceroy ignored the letter and refused to meet with Gandhi, the march was set in motion. [Majmudar, p. 184.] The eve of the march brought thousands of Indians to Sabarmati to hear Gandhi speak at the regular evening prayer. An American academic writing for The Nation reported that "60,000 persons gathered on the bank of the river to hear Gandhi's call to arms. This call to arms was perhaps the most remarkable call to war that has ever been made." [Herbert A. Miller, "Gandhi's Campaign Begins", The Nation, April 23, 1930. Dalton, p. 107.]

March to Dandi

On March 12, 1930, Gandhi and 78 male satyagrahis set out on foot for the coastal village of Dandi, Gujarat, convert|390|km|mi|lk=on from their starting point at Sabarmati Ashram. According to The Statesman, the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi's functions, 100,000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmedabad. [Weber, p. 140.] ["The Statesman", March 13, 1930.] The first day's march of convert|21|km|mi|lk=on ended in the village of Aslali, where Gandhi spoke to a crowd of about 4,000. At Aslali, and the other villages that the march passed through, volunteers collected donations, registered new satyagrahis, and received resignations from village officials who chose to end cooperation with British rule. [Weber, pp. 143-144.]

As they entered each village, crowds greeted the marchers, beating drums and cymbals. Gandhi gave speeches attacking the salt tax as inhuman, and the salt satyagraha as a "poor man's battle." Each night they slept in the open, asking of the villagers nothing more than simple food and a place to rest and wash. Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the battle for independence, necessary for eventual victory. [Ackerman & DuVall, p. 86.]

Thousands of satyagrahis and leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined him. Every day, more and more people joined the march. At Surat, they were greeted by 30,000 people. When they reached the railhead at Dandi, more than 50,000 were gathered. Gandhi gave interviews and wrote articles along the way. Foreign journalists made him a household name in Europe and America. ["Three Bombay cinema companies sent crews along to shoot newsreel footage, and foreign journalists turned Gandhi into a household name in Europe and America. (At the end of 1930, Time magazine made him "Man of the Year")." Ackerman & DuVall, p. 86.] The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March, including two front page articles on April 6 and April 7. [Dalton, p, 221.] Near the end of the march, Gandhi declared, "I want world sympathy in this battle of Right against Might." [From "Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi" 43: 180, Wolpert, p. 148]

Upon arriving at the seashore on April 5, Gandhi was interviewed by an Associated Press reporter. He stated:

I cannot withhold my compliments from the government for the policy of complete non interference adopted by them throughout the march .... I wish I could believe this non-interference was due to any real change of heart or policy. The wanton disregard shown by them to popular feeling in the Legislative Assembly and their high-handed action leave no room for doubt that the policy of heartless exploitation of India is to be persisted in at any cost, and so the only interpretation I can put upon this non-interference is that the British Government, powerful though it is, is sensitive to world opinion which will not tolerate repression of extreme political agitation which civil disobedience undoubtedly is, so long as disobedience remains civil and therefore necessarily non-violent .... It remains to be seen whether the Government will tolerate as they have tolerated the march, the actual breach of the salt laws by countless people from tomorrow. [Gandhi & Jack, 1994, p. 238-239.]

The following morning, after a prayer, Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." [Gandhi & Dalton, 1996, p. 72.] He then boiled it in seawater, producing illegal salt. He implored his thousands of followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore, "wherever it is convenient" and to instruct villagers in making illegal salt. [Gandhi & Jack, 1994, p. 240.]

Mass civil disobedience

Mass civil disobedience spread throughout India as millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt. [Gandhi & Dalton, 1996, p. 72.] Salt was sold illegally all over the coast of India. A pinch of salt made by Gandhi himself sold for 1,600 rupees (equivalent to $750 dollars at the time). In reaction, the British government incarcerated over sixty thousand people by the end of the month. [Gandhi & Jack, 1994, p. 238-239.]

What had begun as a Salt Satyagraha quickly grew into a mass Satyagraha. ["The Salt Satyagraha in the meantime grew almost spontaneously into a mass satyagraha." Habib, p. 57.] British cloth and goods were boycotted. Unpopular forest laws were defied in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Central Provinces. Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax, under threat of losing their crops and land. In Midnapore, Bengalis took part by refusing to pay the chowkidar tax. [Habib, p. 57.] The British responded with more laws, including censorship of correspondence and declaring the Congress and its associate organizations illegal. None of those measures slowed the civil disobedience movement. ["Correspondence came under censorship, the Congress and its associate organizations were declared illegal, and their funds made subject to seizure. These measures did not appear to have any effect on the movement..." Habib, p. 57.]

In Peshawar, satyagraha was led by a Muslim Pashto disciple of Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, who had trained a 50,000 member army of non-violent activists called Khudai Khidmatgar. [Habib, p. 55.] On April 23, 1930, Ghaffar Khan was arrested. A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar's Kissa Khani (Storytellers) Bazaar. The British ordered troops to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd, killing an estimated 200-250. [Habib, p. 56.] The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in non-violence, willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them. [Johansen, p. 62.] One British Indian Army regiment, troops of the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles, refused to fire at the crowds. The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy penalties, including life imprisonment. [Habib, p. 56.]

The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom. Thousands of women, from large cities to small villages, became active participants in satyagraha. ["...first, it is from this year (1930) that women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom.... But from 1930, that is in the second non-cooperation movement better known as the Civil Disobedience Movement, thousands upon thousands of women in all parts of India, not just in big cities but also in small towns and villages, became part of the satyagraha struggle." Chatterjee, p. 41.] Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march, but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India. Usha Mehta, an early Gandhian activist, remarked that "Even our old aunts and great-aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt. And then they would shout at the top of their voices: 'We have broken the salt law!'" [Hardiman, p. 113.] The growing number of women in the fight for independence was a "new and serious feature" according to Lord Irwin. A government report on the involvement of women stated "thousands of them emerged....from the seclusion of their homes...in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing: and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant." [Johnson, p. 33.]

There were outbreaks of violence in Kolkata, Karachi, and Gujarat. Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non-cooperation movement, this time Gandhi was "unmoved". Appealing for violence to end, at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents "for the finished sacrifices of their sons.... A warrior's death is never a matter for sorrow." [Wolpert, 2001, p. 149.]

British documents show that the British government was shaken by satyagraha. Non-violent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi. John Court Curry, a British police officer stationed in India, wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930. Curry and others in British government, including Wedgwood Benn, Secretary of State for India, preferred fighting violent rather than non-violent opponents. [Johnson, p. 33.]

Aftermath

Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march, though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India. He created a temporary ashram near Dandi. From there, he urged women followers in Mumbai to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth. He said that "a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth. Schools and colleges should become empty." [Wolpert, 2001, p. 149.]

For his next major action, Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat. He wrote to Lord Irwin, again telling him of his plans. Around midnight of May 4, as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove, the District Magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily-armed constables. [Gandhi & Jack, 1994, p. 244-245.] He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities, and held without trial near Pune. [Riddick, p. 108.]

The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned, with Abbas Tyabji, a seventy-six year old retired judge, leading the march with Gandhi's wife Kasturba at his side. Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison. After their arrests, the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu, a woman poet and freedom fighter, who warned the satyagrahis, "You must not use any violence under any circumstances. You will be beaten, but you must not resist: you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows." Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention. [Ackerman & DuVall, pp. 87-90.] United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that:

Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls. The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow. Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders. In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies. Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes. The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down. ["Webb Miller's report from May 21", Martin, p. 38.]

Vithalbhai Patel, former Speaker of the Assembly, watched the beatings and remarked, "All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever." [Wolpert, 2001, p. 155.] Following attempts by the British to censor Miller's story, it eventually appeared in 1,350 newspapers throughout the world, and was read into the official record of the United States Senate. [Miller, p. 198-199.] Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels showing the march. Time magazine declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing Gandhi's march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax." [cite web| last =Time Magazine | title =Man of the Year, 1930 | publisher =Time| date =1931-01-05 | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,930215,00.html | accessdate =2007-11-17 ] Civil disobedience continued until early 1931, when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms. [Gandhi & Dalton, 1996, p. 73.] The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931.

Long term impact

Salt Satyagraha produced scant progress toward dominion status or independence for India, and did not win any major concessions from the British. ["...made scant progress toward either dominion status within the empire or outright independence. Neither had they won any major concessions on the economic and mundane issues that Gandhiji considered vital." Ackerman & DuVall, pp. 106.] It also failed to attract Muslim support—many Muslims actively boycotted the satyagraha. [Dalton, p. 119-120.] Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934. Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhiji, who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme, which included his efforts to end untouchability. [Johnson, p. 36.] Even though British authorities were again in control by the mid 1930s, Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognize the legitimacy of claims by Gandhiji and the Congress Party for independence. ["Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly recognized the legitimate claims of Gandhiji and Congress for Indian independence." Johnson, p. 37.] The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognize that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of Indians — Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent. ["The old order, in which British control rested comfortably on Indian acquiescence, had been sundered. In the midst of civil disobedience, Sir Charles Innes, a provincial governor, circulated his analysis of events to his colleagues. "England can hold India only by consent," he conceded. "We can't rule it by the sword." The British lost that consent...." Ackerman & DuVall, p. 109.]

Nehru considered Salt Satyagraha the high water mark of his association with Gandhiji, [Fisher, p. 368.] and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:

Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses....Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance....They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole....It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhiji's leadership, must have the credit for it. [Johnson, p. 37.]

More than thirty years later, Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960's:

Like most people, I had heard of Gandhiji, but I had never studied him seriously. As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance. I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts. The whole concept of Satyagraha (Satya is truth which equals love, and agraha is force; Satyagraha, therefore, means truth force or love force) was profoundly significant to me. As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhiji, my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished, and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform. [King, p. 23.]

Re-enactment in 2005

To commemorate the Great Salt March, the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation proposed a re-enactment on the 75th anniversary. The event was known as the "International Walk for Justice and Freedom". Mahatma Gandhi's great-grandson Tushar Gandhi and several hundred fellow marchers followed the same route to Dandi. The start of the march on March 12, 2005 in Ahmedabad was attended by Sonia Gandhi, Chairperson of the National Advisory Council, as well as several Indian Cabinet Ministers, many of whom walked for the first few kilometres. The participants halted at Dandi on the night of April 5, with the commemoration ending on April 7. [cite news | title = Gandhi's 1930 march re-enacted | publisher = BBC News | date = 2005-03-12 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4342745.stm | accessdate = 2007-12-27 ] [cite news | last = Diwanji | first = Amberish K | title = In the Mahatma's footsteps | publisher = Rediff | date = 2005-03-15 | url = http://specials.rediff.com/news/2005/mar/15sld1.htm | accessdate = 2007-12-27 ]

A series of commemorative stamps were issued on the centenary of the Dandi March—denomination INR 5, Date of Issue: April 5, 2005. [cite web | title = PM releases commemorative stamps on ‘Dandi March’ | url=http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=93 | accessdate = 2007-12-27 ]

Notes

References

*cite book |last=Ackerman |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Ackerman |coauthors=DuVall, Jack |title=A Force More Powerful: A Century of Nonviolent Conflict |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2000 |isbn=0312240503
*cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Manini |title=1930: Turning Point in the Participation of Women in the Freedom Struggle |journal=Social Scientist |volume=29 |issue=7/8 |pages=pp. 39–47 |month=Jul. – Aug. |year=2001 |accessdate=2007-12-03 |doi=10.2307/3518124
*cite book |last=Dalton |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Dalton |title=Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action |year=1993 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0231122373
*cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Margaret W. |title=India's Jawaharlal Nehru |journal=Asian Survey |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=pp. 363–373 |month=Jun. |year=1967 |url= |accessdate= |doi=10.1525/as.1967.7.6.01p02764
*cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mahatma |authorlink=Mahatma Gandhi |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India |year=1994 |location=New Delhi
*cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandas K. |title=The Essential Gandhi |publisher=Vintage |year=1962 |location=New York |isbn =1-4000-3050-1
*cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mahatma |coauthors=Jack, Homer Alexander |title=The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings |publisher=Grove Press |year=1994 |isbn=0802131611
*cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mahatma |coauthors=Dalton, Dennis |title=Selected Political Writings |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1996 |isbn=0872203301
*cite book |last=Gandhi |first=M. K. |title=Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha) |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |year=2001 |isbn=0486416062
*cite journal |last=Habib |first=Irfan |authorlink=Irfan Habib |title=Civil Disobedience 1930-31 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=25 |issue=9–10 |pages=pp. 43–66 |month=Sep. – Oct. |year=1997 |accessdate=2007-12-03 |doi=10.2307/3517680
*cite book |last=Hardiman |first=David |title=Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0231131143
*cite journal |last=Johansen |first=Robert C. |title =Radical Islam and Nonviolence: A Case Study of Religious Empowerment and Constraint Among Pashtuns |journal=Journal of Peace Research |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=pp. 53–71 |year=1997 |doi =10.1177/0022343397034001005
*cite book |last=Johnson |first=Richard L. |title=Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings By And About Mahatma Gandhi |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005 |isbn=0739111434
*cite book |last=King, Jr. |first=Martin Luther |authorlink=Martin Luther King, Jr. |coauthors=Carson, Clayborne | title =The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. | publisher =Warner Books | date =1998 | location = | isbn =0446676500
*cite book |last=Majmudar |first=Uma |coauthors=Gandhi, Rajmohan |title=Gandhi's Pilgrimage Of Faith: From Darkness To Light |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |location=New York |isbn=0791464059
*cite book |last=Martin |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Martin (professor) |title=Justice Ignited |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2006 |isbn=0742540863
*cite book |last=Riddick |first=John F. |title=The History of British India: A Chronology |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0313322805
*cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |authorlink=Stanley Wolpert |title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=019515634X
*cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1999 |isbn=0520221729

Media

External links

* [http://www.harappa.com/wall/1930.html Newsreel footage of Salt Satyagraha]
* [http://www.saltmarch.org.in/home.html The Salt March]
* [http://specials.rediff.com/news/2005/mar/15sld1.htm Salt march re-enactment slide show]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4342745.stm Gandhi's 1930 march re-enacted] (BBC News)
* [http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=93 Speech by Prime Minister of India] on 75th anniversary of Dandi March.