Demographic history of Jerusalem

Arab market, Old City of Jerusalem

Children in Jerusalem

Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000 year history. Since medieval times, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters.

Most population data pre-1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.^[1] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century. Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became a majority of the population.

In 2003, the total population of Jerusalem was 693,217 including 464,527 Jews and 228,690 "Arabs and others" (Choshen 1), that same year the population of the Old City was 3,965 Jews and 31,405 "Arabs and others" (Choshen 12).

Overview

Jerusalemites are of varied national, ethnic and religious denominations and include European, Middle Eastern and African Jews, Christian Armenians, and Muslim, Protestant, Greek Orthodox Arabs, Syrian Orthodox and Coptic Orthodox Arabs, among others.^[2] Many of these groups were once immigrants or pilgrims that have over time become near-indigenous populations and claim the importance of Jerusalem to their faith as their reason for moving to and being in the city.^[2]

Jerusalem's long history of conquests by competing and different powers has resulted in different groups living in the city many of whom have never fully identified or assimilated with a particular power, despite the length of their rule. Though they may have been citizens of that particular kingdom and empire and involved with civic activities and duties, these groups often saw themselves as distinct national groups (see for example, the Armenians).^[2] The Ottoman millet system, whereby minorities in the Ottoman Empire were given the authority to govern themselves within the framework of the broader system, allowed these groups to retain autonomy and remain separate from other religious and national groups.

Since 1967, when Israel recaptured East Jerusalem, the Jewish population in Jerusalem has declined from 76% to 64% and is continuing to drop about 1% per year. The Arab population of Jerusalem has increased from 24% to 36%.^{[citation needed]} The Arab population is burgeoning, outpacing Jewish growth in the city. While Jews remain a significant majority of the population, as they have been since as early as 1845, their numbers have grown just 114% in the thirty years since the city's unification in 1967. The Arab population, in contrast, has expanded by 163% in the same time period. At 36% of the total in 2006, Jerusalem is now far more Arab than it was in 1967 when East Jerusalem was recaptured.^{[citation needed]}

Historical population by ethnicity

The tables below provide data on demographic change over time in Jerusalem, with an emphasis on the Jewish population. Readers should be aware that the boundaries of Jerusalem have changed many times over the years and that Jerusalem may also refer to a district or even a sub-district under Ottoman, British, or Israeli administration, see e.g. Jerusalem District. Thus, year-to-year comparisons may not be valid due to the varying geographic areas covered by the population censuses.

First Century Jerusalem

During the first Jewish-Roman war (66–73 CE) the population of Jerusalem was estimated at 600,000 persons by Roman historian Tacitus, while Josephus, estimated that there were as many as 1,100,000, inhabitants of Jerusalem of whom 97,000 were sold as slaves [4]According to Josephus("B. J." v. 13, § 7),after the Roman victory over the Jews, as many as 115,880 dead bodies were carried out through one gate between the months of Nisan and Tammuz.[5]

Middle Ages

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
c.1130	0	0	30,000	30,000	?	Runciman
1267	2*	?	?	?	Nachmanides, Jewish Scholar
1471	250*	?	?	?	?	Baron
1488	76*	?	?	?	?	Baron
1489	200*	?	?	?	?	Yaari, 1943[3]

* Indicates families.

Ottoman era

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
1525–6	1,194	3,704	714	5,612	Ottoman taxation registers*	Cohen and Lewis[4]
1538–9	1,363	7,287	884	9,534	Ottoman taxation registers*	Cohen and Lewis[4]
1553–4	1,958	12,154	1,956	16,068	Ottoman taxation registers*	Cohen and Lewis[4]
1596–77	?	8,740	252	?	Ottoman taxation registers*	Cohen and Lewis[4]
1723	2,000	?	?	?	Van Egmont & Heyman, Christian Travellers	[5]

Modern era

Muslim "relative majority"

Arab boys at Jerusalem YMCA, 1938

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
1806	2,000	4,000	2,774	8,774	Ulrich Jasper Seetzen, Frisian explorer[6]	Sharkansky, 1996[7][8]
1815	4 - 5,000	?	?	26,000	William Turner[9]	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1824	6,000	10,000	4,000	20,000	Fisk and King, Writers	[10]
1832	4,000	13,000	3,560	20,560	Ferdinand de Géramb, French monk	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]

Muslim or Jewish "relative majority"

Kindergarten in Rishon Lezion, c.1898

Writing in 1841, the biblical scholar Edward Robinson noted the conflicting demographic estimates regarding Jerusalem during the period, stating in reference to an 1839 estimate by Sir Moses Montefiore: "As to the Jews, the enumeration in question was made out by themselves, in the expectation of receiving a certain amount of alms for every name returned. It is therefore obvious that they here had as strong a motive to exaggerate their number, as they often have in other circumstances to underrate it."^[11] Between 1856 and 1880, Jewish immigration to Palestine more than doubled, with the majority settling in Jerusalem.^[12] The majority of these immigrants were Ashkenazim from Eastern Europe, who subsisted on Halukka.^[12]

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
1838	3,000	4,500	3,500	11,500	Edward Robinson	Edward Robinson, 1841[13]
1844	7,120	5,000	3,390	15,510	Ernst-Gustav Schultz, Prussian consul	Harrel and Stendel, 1974
1846	7,515	6,100	3,558	17,173	Titus Tobler, Swiss explorer[14]	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1850	13,860	?	?	?	Dr. Ascher, Anglo-Jewish Association
1850	630*	1,025*	738*	2,393*	?	Alexander Scholch, 1985[15]
1851	5,580	12,286'	7,488	25,354	Official census[16]	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1856	5,700	10,300	3,000	18,000	Ludwig August von Frankl, Austrian writer	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1857	7,000	?	?	10-15,000	HaMaggid periodical	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1862	8,000	6,000	3,800	17,800	HaCarmel periodical	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1866	8,000	4,000	4,000	16,000	John Murray travel guidebook	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1867	4 - 5,000	6,000	?	?	Ellen-Clare Miller, Missionary	[17]
1869	3,200*	n/a	n/a	n/a	Rabbi H. J. Sneersohn	New York Times[18]
1869	9,000	5,000	4,000	18,000	Hebrew Christian Mutual Aid Society	[19][20]
1869	7,977	7,500	5,373	20,850	Liévin de Hamme, Franciscan missionary	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1871	4,000	13,000	7,000	20,560	Karl Baedeker travel guidebook	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1876	12,000	7,560	5,470	25,030	Liévin de Hamme, Franciscan missionary	Harrel and Stendel, 1974
1876	4,000	13,000	3,560	20,560	Bernhard Neumann [21]	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]

Jews as a full or relative majority

During the First Aliyah, which began in 1881, the population of Jerusalem began to increase from around 20,000 to around 60,000 by the time of the British mandate. The relative proportion of Jews began to increase during this period, constituting more than half the city's population by the turn of the century.

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
1882	9,000	7,000	5,000	21,000	Wilson	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1885	15,000	6,000	14,000	35,000	Goldmann	Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[8]
1893	>50%	?	?	~40,000	Albert Shaw, Writer	Shaw, 1894 [22]
1896	28,112	8,560	8,748	45,420	Calendar of Palestine for the year 5656	Harrel and Stendel, 1974
1905	13,300	11,000	8,100	32,400	1905 Ottoman census	U.O.Schmelz[23]

Jewish majority

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
1922	33,971	13,413	14,669	62,578	Census of Palestine (British)	Harrel and Stendel, 1974
1931	51,200	19,900	19,300	90,053	Census of Palestine (British)	Harrel and Stendel, 1974
1944	97,000	30,600	29,400	157,000	?	?
1947	100,000	?	?	205,000	?	United Nations (1983) includes Bethlehem and surrounding Arab villages
1948	100,000	40,000	25,000	165,000	?	Harrel, 1974
1967	195,700	54,963	12,646	263,307	?	Harrel, 1974

* Indicates families.

After Jerusalem Law

Year	Jews	Muslims	Christians	Total	Original Source	As quoted in
1980	292,300	?	?	407,100	Jerusalem Municipality
1985	327,700	?	?	457,700	Jerusalem Municipality
1987	340,000	121,000	14,000	475,000	Jerusalem Municipality
1990	378,200	131,800	14,400	524,400	Jerusalem Municipality
1995	417,100	182,700	14,100	617,000	Jerusalem Municipality
1996	421,200	?	?	602,100	Jerusalem Municipality
2000	448,800	?	?	657,500	Jerusalem Municipality
2004	464,500	?	?	693,200	Jerusalem Municipality
2005	469,300	?	?	706,400	Jerusalem Municipality
2007	489,480	?	?	746,300	Jerusalem Municipality

As of May 24, 2006, Jerusalem's population is 724,000 (about 10% of the total population of Israel), of which 65.0% were Jews (approx. 40% of whom live in East Jerusalem), 32.0% Muslim (almost all of whom live in East Jerusalem) and 2% Christian. 35% of the city's population were children under age of 15. In 2005, the city had 18,600 newborns. (Source: Israel Central Bureau of Statistics)

These official Israeli statistics refer to the expanded Israel municipality of Jerusalem. This includes not only the area of the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities, but also outlying Palestinian villages and neighbourhoods east of the city, which were not part of Jordanian East Jerusalem prior to 1967.

Demographic key dates

• 4500–3500 BCE: First settlement established near Gihon Spring (earliest archeological evidence)
• c.1550–1400 BCE: Jerusalem becomes a vassal to the Egyptian New Kingdom
• c. 1000 BCE: King David attacks and captures Jerusalem, which becomes capital of the United Kingdom of Israel. (Biblical source only)
• 732 BCE: Jerusalem becomes a vassal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire^[24]
• 587–6 BCE: Nebuchadnezzar II fought Pharaoh Apries's attempt to invade Judah. Jerusalem mostly destroyed including the First Temple, and the city's prominent citizens exiled to Babylon (Biblical sources only)
• 539 BCE: Cyrus the Great allows Babylonian Jews to return from the Babylonian captivity and rebuild the Temple (Biblical sources only, see Cyrus (Bible) and The Return to Zion)
• 350 BCE: Jerusalem revolts against Artaxerxes III, who retakes the city and burns it down in the process. Jews who supported the revolt are sent to Hyrcania on the Caspian Sea.
• 332–200 BCE: Jerusalem capitulates to Alexander the Great, and is later incorporated in to the Ptolemaic Kingdom (301BCE) and Seleucid Empire (200BCE).
• 175 BCE: Antiochus IV Epiphanes accelerates Seleucid efforts to eradicate the Jewish religion, outlaws Sabbath and circumcision, sacks Jerusalem and erects an altar to Zeus in the Second Temple after plundering it.
• 164 BCE: The Hasmoneans take control of part of Jerusalem, whilst the Seleucids retain control of the Acra (fortress) in the city and most surrounding areas.
• 63 BCE: Roman Empire under Pompey takes city
• 70 CE: Titus ends the major portion of Great Jewish Revolt and destroys Herod's Temple. The Sanhedrin is relocated to Yavne, and the city's leading Christians relocate to Pella
• 136: Hadrian formally reestablishes the city as Aelia Capitolina, and forbids Jewish and Christian presence in the city. Restrictions over Christian presence in the city are relaxed two years later.
• 324–325: Emperor Constantine holds the First Council of Nicaea and confirms status of Jerusalem as a Christian patriarchate.^[25] A significant wave of Christian immigration to the city begins. The ban on Jews entering the city remains in force, but they are allowed to enter once a year to pray at the Western Wall on Tisha B'Av
• c.380: Tyrannius Rufinus and Melania the Elder found the first monastery in Jerusalem on the Mount of Olives
• 614: Jerusalem falls to Khosrau II's Sassanid Empire until it is retaken in 629. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is burned and much of the Christian population is massacred.^[26][27] A Jewish leader was made governor of the city, but was replaced by a Christian after being killed by a mob of Christian citizens.
• 636–7: Caliph Umar the Great conquers Jerusalem. Patriarch Sophronius and Umar are reported to have agreed the Covenant of Umar I, which guaranteed Christians freedom of religion but prohibited Jews from living in the city according to Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. The Armenian Apostolic Church began appointing its own bishop in Jerusalem. in 638.
• 797: Abbasid–Carolingian alliance – the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored and the Latin hospital was enlarged, encouraging Christian travel to the city.^[28]
• 1009–30: Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim orders destruction of churches and synagogues in the empire, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Caliph Ali az-Zahir authorizes them rebuilt 20 years later.
• 1077: Jerusalem revolts against the rule of Emir Atsiz ibd Uvaq who re-takes the city and massacres the local population.^[29]
• 1099: First Crusaders capture Jerusalem and slaughter most of the city's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The Dome of the Rock is converted into a church.
• 1187: Saladin captures Jerusalem from Crusaders and allows Jewish and Orthodox Christian settlement. The Dome of the Rock is converted to an Islamic center of worship again.
• 1229: A 10-year treaty is signed allowing Christians freedom to live in the unfortified city. The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places.
• 1244: Mercenary army of Khwarezmians destroyed the city.
• 1260: Jerusalem raided by the Mongols under Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa. Hulagu Khan sends a message to Louis IX of France that Jerusalem remitted to the Christians under the Franco-Mongol Alliance
• 1267: Nachmanides goes to Jerusalem and prays at the Western Wall. Reported to have found only two Jewish families in the city
• 1482: The visiting Dominican priest Felix Fabri described Jerusalem as "a collection of all manner of abominations". As "abominations" he listed Saracens, Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Abyssianians, Nestorians, Armenians, Gregorians, Maronites, Turcomans, Bedouins, Assassins, a sect possibly Druzes, Mamelukes, and "the most accursed of all", Jews. Only the Latin Christians "long with all their hearts for Christian princes to come and subject all the country to the authority of the Church of Rome".
• 1517: The Ottoman Empire captures Jerusalem under Sultan Selim I who proclaims himself Caliph of the Islamic world
• 1604: First Protectorate of missions agreed, in which the Christian subjects of Henry IV of France were free to visit the Holy Places of Jerusalem. French missionaries begin to travel to Jerusalem.
• 1700: Judah the Pious and 1,000 followers settle in Jerusalem.
• 1774: The Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca is signed giving Russia the right to protect all Christians in Jerusalem.
• 1821: Greek War of Independence – Jerusalem's Christian population (the majority being Greek Orthodox), were forced by the Ottoman authorities to relinquish their weapons, wear black and help improve the city's fortifications
• 1837: Galilee earthquake of 1837 results in Jews from Safed and Tiberias resettling in Jerusalem.
• 1839–40: Rabbi Judah Alkalai publishes "The Pleasant Paths" and "The Peace of Jerusalem", urging the return of European Jews to Jerusalem and Palestine.
• 1853–4: A treaty is signed confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as the supreme authority in the Holy Land with control over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, contravening the 1774 treaty with Russia and triggering the Crimean War.
• 1860: The first Jewish neighborhood (Mishkenot Sha'ananim) is built outside the Old City walls, in an area later known as Yemin Moshe, by Sir Moses Montefiore and Judah Touro.^[30][31]
• 1862: Moses Hess publishes Rome and Jerusalem, arguing for a Jewish homeland in Palestine centered on Jerusalem
• 1873–75: Mea Shearim is built.
• 1882: The First Aliyah results in 35,000 Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region
• 1901: Ottoman restrictions on Zionist immigration to and land acquisition in Jerusalem district take effect
• 1901–14: The Second Aliyah results in 40,000 Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region
• 1917: The Ottomans are defeated at the Battle of Jerusalem during the First World War and the British Army takes control. The Balfour Declaration had been issued a month before.
• 1919–23: The Third Aliyah results in 35,000 Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region
• 1924–28: The Fourth Aliyah results in 82,000 Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region
• 1929–39: The Fifth Aliyah results in 250,000 Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region
• 1948–49: 1948 Arab-Israeli War. All Jewish residents of the eastern part of the city were kicked out by Arab forces, dozens of synagogues dating back to Roman times were destroyed by Arab forces. The entire Jewish Quarter was destroyed.^[32]
• 1967: The Six Day War. The Old City is captured by the IDF and the Moroccan Quarter including 135 houses and the Al-Buraq mosque is demolished, creating a plaza in front of the Western Wall. Israel declares Jerusalem unified and announces free access to holy sites of all religions.
• 1980: The Jerusalem Law is enacted leading to UN Security Council Resolution 478 (it states that the Council will not recognize this law)

References

1. ^ Usiel Oskar Schmelz, in Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914: studies in economic and social history, Gad G. Gilbar, Brill Archive, 1990 [1]
2. ^ ^{a b c} Preserving Identity in the Holy City
3. ^ Avraham Yaari, Igrot Eretz Yisrael, p. 98.(Tel Aviv, 1943)
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Amnon Cohen and Bernard Lewis (1978). Population and Revenue in the Towns of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–15, 94. ISBN 0-691-09375-X.  The registers give counts of tax-paying households, bachelors, religious men, and disabled men. We followed Cohen and Lewis on taking 6 as the average household size, even though they call it "conjectural" and note that other scholars have suggested averages between 5 and 7.
5. ^ Christian travelers Johann Aegidius Van Egmont and John Heyman, Jewish history timeline; Turkish/Ottoman Rule, 1517—1917
6. ^ A Brief Account of the Countries Adjoining the Lake of Tiberias, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea
7. ^ Sharkansky, Ira (1996). Governing Jerusalem: again on the world's agenda. Wayne State University Press. p. 121. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jKdKSqe78DIC&dq=1876+7,560+jerusalem&source=gbs_navlinks_s. Retrieved 24 Dec 2010. 
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} Kark, Ruth; Oren-Nordheim, Michal (2001). Jerusalem and its environs: quarters, neighborhoods, villages, 1800-1948. Wayne State University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0814329098. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzOAxmHDzHUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2011. 
9. ^ Journal of a Tour in the Levant, Published by J. Murray, Item notes: v.2
10. ^ Fisk and King, 'Description of Jerusalem,' in The Christian Magazine, July 1824, page 220. Mendon Association, 1824. (The figures are preceded by the comment "the following estimate seems to us as probably correct as any one we have heard". The authors also note that, "some think the Jews more numerous than the Mussulmans.")
11. ^ Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea ..., Volume 2 page 86
12. ^ ^{a b} Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State By S. Zalman Abramov, page 27
13. ^ Edward Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea: a journal of travels in the year 1838, Volume 2, 1841, page 85
14. ^ Bibliographia geographica Palaestinae: zunächst kritische Uebersicht gedruckter und ungedruckter Beschreibungen der Reisen ins Heilige Land 265 pages
15. ^ Scholch, Alexander (1985). "The Demographic Development of Palestine". International Journal of Middle East Studies 17 (4): 485–505. JSTOR 163415. 
16. ^ Wolff, Press, "The Jewish Yishuv", pp 427-433, as quotes in Kark and Oren-Nordheim
17. ^ Ellen Clare Miller, Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...'
18. ^ New York Times, February 19, 1869 [2]; See also I. Harold Scharfman, The First Rabbi, Pangloss Press, 1988, page 524 which reports the figure as 3,100.
19. ^ Burns, Jabez. Help-Book for Travelers to The East. 1870. Page 75
20. ^ Hebrew Christian Mutual Aid Society. Almanack of 1869
21. ^ Die heilige Stadt und deren Bewohner in ihren naturhistorischen, culturgeschichtlichen, socialen und medicinischen Verhältnissen Published by Der Verfasser, 512 pages
22. ^ Review Of Reviews. Volume IX. Jan-Jun, 1894. Albert Shaw, Editor. Page 98. "The present population of Jerusalem is not far from forty thousand, and more than half are Jews."
23. ^ Usiel Oskar Schmelz, in Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914: studies in economic and social history, page 35, Gad G. Gilbar, Brill Archive, 1990 [3]
24. ^ Chronology of the Israelite Tribes from The History Files (historyfiles.co.uk)
25. ^ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i.e., Jerusalem] should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."; "It is very hard to determine just what was the “precedence” granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the "metropolis" referred to in the last clause. Most writers, including Hefele, Balsamon, Aristenus and Beveridge consider it to be Cæsarea; while Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it is Antioch that is referred to."
26. ^ Hussey, J.M. 1961. The Byzantine World. New York, New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, p. 25.
27. ^ Karen Armstrong. 1997. Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths. New York, New York: Ballantine Books, p. 229. ISBN 0-345-39168-3
28. ^ Heck, Gene W.. Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab roots of capitalism. p. 172. http://books.google.com/books?id=5qNgiv-ZOEAC&pg=PA179. 
29. ^ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. "Historic Cities of the Islamic World
30. ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/geo/mishkenot.html
31. ^ http://www.mishkenot.org.il/en/secmain.asp?secid=1
32. ^ http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/A8138AD15B0FCAC385256B920059DEBF

Bibliography

• Jewish National Council (1947). "First Memorandum: historical survey of the waves of the number and density of the population of ancient Palestine; Presented to the United Nations in 1947 by Vaad Leumi on Behalf of the Creation of a Jewish State" (​PDF (0.1 MB)). http://www.crethiplethi.com/download/memoranda1.pdf. 
• Jewish National Council (1947). "Second Memorandum: historical survey of the Jewish population in Palestine from the fall of the Jewish state to the beginning of zionist pioneering; Presented to the United Nations in 1947 by Vaad Leumi on Behalf of the Creation of a Jewish State" (​PDF (0.3 MB)). http://www.crethiplethi.com/download/memoranda2.pdf. 
• Jewish National Council (1947). "Third Memorandum: historical survey of the waves of Jewish immigration into Palestine from the arab conquest to the first zionist pioneers; Presented to the United Nations in 1947 by Vaad Leumi on Behalf of the Creation of a Jewish State" (​PDF (0.1 MB)). http://www.crethiplethi.com/download/memoranda3.pdf. 
• Salo Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Columbia University Press, 1983.
• Maya Choshen, ed. (2004). "Table III/14 - Population of Jerusalem, by Age, Quarter, Sub-Quarter, and Statistical Area, 2003" (pdf). Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem. http://www.jiis.org.il/imageBank/File/shnaton_2004/shnaton_c1404.pdf. Retrieved February 27, 2006. 
• Manashe Harrel, "The Jewish Presence in Jerusalem through the Ages" and Ori Stendel "The Arabs in Jerusalem", in Sinai and Oestericcher, eds., Jerusalem, John Day, 1974. The Harrel numbers are also used in Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict, Alpha, 2002.
• Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics information page
• Jerusalem: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian Population (1910-2000) at israelipalestinianprocon.org
• Bruce Masters, Christians And Jews In The Ottoman Arab World Cambridge University Press, 2004.
• Population of Jerusalem until 1945 (Table 10) at mideastweb.org
• United Nations (1983). "International Conference on the Question of Palestine—The Status of Jerusalem". United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine. http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/dd53e072b16b507485257003004fe1fa!OpenDocument. Retrieved February 26, 2006. ^{[dead link]}
• Time Magazine (April 16, 2001). "Jerusalem". http://www.time.com/time/2001/jerusalem/cover.html. Retrieved March 25, 2006. 
• Runciman, Steven (1980). The First Crusade. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-23255-4.
• Martin Gilbert (1987). "Jerusalem Illustrated History Atlas". p. 35. http://www.scribd.com/doc/19551586/JERUSALEM-Illustrated-History. Retrieved December 22, 2010.