Characteristics of New York City mayoral elections

The elections of the Mayor of New York City involve a combination of factors that are not seen together elsewhere.

New York City is the largest city in the United States, with a population (8,250,567) greater than that of many states. Its mayoral elections, accordingly, attract great attention.

Special circumstances in New York go beyond the sheer size of the electorate. As in other cities, class, ethnicity, and race have played a role in mayoral relations.

But in New York, fusion is allowed: a candidate may be endorsed by more than one party, and run on several lines. As a consequence, New York has had and continues to have a larger number of influential third and fourth and fifth parties than elsewhere in the United States.

New York also had a history of significant votes for the Socialist Party candidate, and other socialist and left-wing candidates. While not unique in the United States, this does help explain the unique fabric in New York.

And New York has a long history of tension between reform and clubhouse candidates. This is partially understood in terms of the size of the city and the correspondingly large number of patronage jobs available.

Background

The Mayor of the City of New York is elected in early November every four years and takes office at the beginning of the following year. The City which elects the Mayor as its chief executive consists of the five New York Boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Staten Island, which consolidated to form "Greater" New York on January 1, 1898.

The consolidated City's first Mayor, Robert A. Van Wyck, was elected with other municipal officers in November 1897. Mayoral Elections had previously been held since 1834 by the City of Brooklyn and the smaller, unconsolidated City of New York (Manhattan plus part of The Bronx).

The current mayor of New York, now completing his final term, is Michael R. Bloomberg (elected in 2001 and 2005). The next mayoral election will be held in November 2009 for the term beginning on January 1, 2010.

Some Basic Patterns of Mayoral Elections in New York City

Democrats, Republicans and Reformers

One pattern, stretching back well before consolidation and lasting into the 1960s, is the conflict between, on one side, Tammany Hall, the Democratic political organization largely built on political patronage with a consequent deep skepticism about Civil Service, the merit system of assigning government jobs, and competitive bidding for city contracts, and on the other hand, its various opponents, including Republicans, businessmen opposed to taxation or extorted bribes, middle-class reformers and labor union activists.

Until the election of Fiorello H. La Guardia in 1933, it was almost never possible to unite the disparate anti-Tammany elements in a coalition strong enough to prevail for more than one election. (This was not only for negative reasons: Tammany could listen to and satisfy some of its opponents' needs, and could on occasion run candidates of undoubted quality, such as Abram Hewitt to oppose Henry George's United Labor Party in 1886.^[1] ) In the reported words of the Tammany leader George Washington Plunkitt, reformers were only "mornin' glories —- looked lovely in the mornin' and withered up in a short time, while the regular machines went on flourishin' forever, like fine old oaks." ^[2].

Quite apart from Tammany Hall itself, both Republicans and left-wing reform parties have always had to deal with the overwhelmingly Democratic sympathies of New York City's voters. An examination of the election table below will show that neither the various Socialist and labor parties nor the Republicans were ever strong enough to elect a Mayor alone without the support, or at least the benign non-hostility, of other parties and independents.

Fusion, second ballot lines and third parties

The local term for uniting several constituencies or movements against Tammany was Fusion, which usually required the Republicans to abstain from competing with a non-Republican reform candidate (as in the elections of Seth Low in 1901 and John P. Mitchel in 1913). Later the unusual ability of New York candidates to combine (fuse) votes from several different parties allowed Republicans and Democrats to run their own reform candidates on third party lines, such as "Fusion", American Labor, Liberal, Conservative and Independence. In fact, no Republican has ever been elected Mayor of consolidated New York without the support of at least one other significant party, from LaGuardia to the ex-Democrat Michael Bloomberg. See the Statistical Appendix for other examples.

Even when a candidate could not gain another party's support, he often found it expedient to create a separate line or party name for independent voters to support him, such as "Recovery" (Joseph V. McKee in 1933), "Anticommunist" (Jeremiah Mahoney in 1937), "Experience" (Vincent Impellitteri in 1950) or "Brotherhood" (Robert F. Wagner, Jr. in 1961). In 1965, Rep. John V. Lindsay (R-Liberal) won votes on the "Independent Citizens" line, while his opponent Comptroller Abe Beame (D) won additional votes for "Civil Service Fusion".

Although granting or withholding endorsement was an effective tool for a minor party to influence a candidate's policies and actions, it could sometimes lead to counter-pressure from those who felt that candidates were being swayed too far in the wrong direction. This was one of the main reasons for founding the Conservative Party of New York in 1962 by those upset at the liberalism of Republican Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and (later) Lindsay, against whose 1965 Mayoral campaign the Conservatives ran William F. Buckley, Jr.

More recently, there has been a trend of reformers working not through third parties (such as the now-dormant Liberals) but through Reform Democratic clubs, leading to lively internal contests such as the 1989 Democratic primary where David Dinkins unseated incumbent Mayor Edward Koch who started his own political career in a Reform Democratic Club.^[3] On the other side, however, dissatisfied conservatives have created their own new parties outside the Republican Party, such as the New York State Right to Life Party and the Independence Party of New York.

Remarks

Not all of these patterns will necessarily continue to hold in the future (while Tammany Hall has never revived), but these are a few of the old patterns from which new patterns will emerge. History is often made by breaking those patterns and assumed rules, but these are some of the patterns that held, changed and sometimes returned again.

Statistical Appendix

Principal candidates' City-wide vote since 1897

This is a summary of the detailed results to be found in the main article, New York City mayoral elections, where many original sources are noted. This table is reproduced here to save the reader the inconvenience of constantly referring back to the main article.

Votes in thousands for principal candidates only, generally those winning more than 4.0% (1/25) of the total vote. (Therefore, low votes may not be shown in a particular year for an otherwise significant party, such as Socialist or Conservative. For some of the lesser left-wing candidates before 1945, see The Rise and Fall of the Socialist Vote for Mayor.) Winner in bold-face in a colored box.

To determine the meaning of abbreviations, click the link or check the list below this table. (Different first names, initials and nicknames may be used for the same person purely to fit the available space.)

Abbreviations used in this table: For Fu.= Fusion, Ior Ind.= Independent, Indep. Citizens= Independent Citizens (1965), Ind Fu= Independent Fusion (1993), Ind'ce= Independence Party of New York, Lor Lib.= Liberal Party of New York, Cor Cons.= Conservative Party of New York, ALP= American Labor Party, Sor Soc.= Socialist Party of America, NP= Non-Partisan, Wkg Fam= Working Families Party, Prog= Progressive, Jeff D= The Democracy of Thomas Jefferson (Henry George, 1897), Muni. Ownership League= Municipal Ownership League, Civic All.= Civic Alliance (Hearst1909), Anticomm.= Anticommunist (Mahoney 1937), Exp= Experience party (Impellitteri'slabel for his independent campaign in 1950)

References

1. ^ Morris Hillquit wrote in 1910, "The movement assumed such proportions that the old parties took alarm and sought to offset the popularity of George by nominating the strongest available candidates at the head of their tickets. The Democrats nominated the noted philanthropist and son-in-law of Peter Cooper, Abram S. Hewitt, while the Republicans nominated Theodore Roosevelt, then a young and promising politician." History of Socialism in the United States (1971 Dover reprint), page 252, ISBN 0-486-22767-7
2. ^ Plunkitt of Tammany Hall, as recorded by William Riordon (1963 edition), Project Gutenberg text, Chapter 4
3. ^ "Ed Koch" in Centennial Classroom: NYC Mayors the first 100 years

See also

• Politics of New York [State]
• Elections in New York [State]
• Mayor of New York City
• List of mayors of New York City
• History of New York City
• Tammany Hall
• American Labor Party
• Liberal Party of New York
• Conservative Party of New York
• Independence Party of New York
• Working Families Party

year	Democratic	'000	Fusion, Liberal, Independent, etc.	'000	Republican	'000	other major candidates	'000
1897	Robert A. Van Wyck	234	Seth Low, Citizens Union	152	Benjamin F. Tracy	102	Henry George, Jeff D	22
1901	Edward Shepard	265	Seth Low, Fusion	297
1903	Geo. B. McClellan, Jr	315	Seth Low, Fusion	252
1905	George B. McClellan, Jr.	228	Wm Randolph Hearst, Muni. Ownership League	225	William M. Ivins (Senior)	137
1909	William Jay Gaynor	250	Wm R. Hearst, Civic All.	154	Otto Bannard, R-Fusion	177
1913	Edward E. McCall	234	John Mitchel, Fusion	358			Chas Edw. Russell, S	32
1917	John Francis Hylan	314	John P. Mitchel, Fusion	155	William M. Bennett	56	Morris Hillquit, Soc.	145
	[The 19th (Women's Suffrage) Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in August 1920, doubling the potential total vote.]
1921	John Francis Hylan	750			Henry Curran, R-Coalition	333
1925	Jimmy Walker	749			Frank D. Waterman	347	Jacob Panken, Soc.	83
1929	Jimmy Walker	868			Fiorello H. La Guardia	368	Norman Thomas, S	176
1932	John P. O'Brien	1,054	Joseph McKee, I (write-in)	234	Lewis Pounds	443	Morris Hillquit, Soc.	252
1933	John P. O'Brien	587	Jos.V. McKee, Recovery	609	F.H. La Guardia, R-Fusion	869
1937	Jeremiah Mahoney, D-Trades Union-Anticomm.	891			Fiorello H. La Guardia, R-ALP-Fusion-Prog.	1,345
1941	William O'Dwyer	1,054			Fiorello H. La Guardia, R-ALP-Fusion-United City	1,187
1945	Wm O'Dwyer, D-ALP	1,125	Newbold Morris, No Deal	408	Jonah Goldstein, R-Lib.-Fu.	432
1949	William O'Dwyer	1,267			Newbold Morris, R-Lib.-Fu.	956	Vito Marcantonio ALP	357
1950	Ferdinand Pecora, D-Lib.	935	Vincent Impellitteri, Exp	1,161	Edward Corsi	382	Paul Ross, ALP	148
1953	Robert F. Wagner, Jr.	1,023	Rudolph Halley, Lib.-Ind.	467	Harold Riegelman	662
1957	Robt Wagner, D-Lib-Fu	1,509			Robert Christenberry	586
1961	Robert F. Wagner, Jr., D-Lib.-Brotherhood	1,237	Lawrence Gerosa, Ind.-Citizens Party	322	Louis Lefkowitz, R-Nonpartisan-Civic Action	836
1965	Abraham Beame, D-Civil Service Fusion	1,046			John V. Lindsay, R-Lib.-Indep. Citizens	1,149	Wm F. Buckley, Jr, Conservative	341
1969	Mario Procaccino, D-NP-Civil Service Ind.	832	John V. Lindsay, Liberal	1,013	John Marchi, R-Conservative	543
1973	Abraham Beame	961	Albert Blumenthal, Lib.	265	John Marchi	277	Mario Biaggi, Cons.	190
1977	Edward Koch	717	Mario Cuomo, Liberal	588	Roy M. Goodman	59	Barry Farber, Cons.	57
1981	Edward Koch, D-R	913	Frank Barbaro, Unity	163
1985	Edward Koch, D-Ind.	868	Carol Bellamy, Liberal	113	Diane McGrath, R-Cons.	102
1989	David Dinkins	917			Rudolph Giuliani, R-L-Ind Fu	870
1993	David Dinkins	877			Rudolph Giuliani, R-Lib.	930
1997	Ruth Messinger	479			Rudolph Giuliani, R-Lib.	616
2001	Mark Green, D-Wkg Fam	709			Mike Bloomberg, R-Ind'ce	744
2005	Fernando Ferrer	503			M. Bloomberg, R/L-Ind'ce	753
2009	Bill Thompson, D-Wkg Fam	535			M. Bloomberg, R/Ind'ce	585
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