Chicano

"Chicana" redirects here. For the wrestler, see Sangre Chicana.

For other uses, see Chicano (disambiguation).

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The terms Chicano and Chicana (also spelled Xicana) are used in reference to U.S. citizens of Mexican descent. The term began to be widely used during the Chicano Movement, mainly among Mexican Americans, especially in the movement's peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s. For Mexicans the meaning of Chicano meant "poorest of the poor" but during the Civil Rights movement they used the word to unite themselves.

Etymology

"Chicano teenager in El Paso's second ward. A classic barrio which is slowly giving way to urban renewal." South El Paso, Texas, July 1972. Photograph by Danny Lyon.

The origin of the word "chicano" is disputed. Some critics claim it is a shorterned form of Mexicano (Mexican in Spanish). Mexico as spoken in its original Nahuatl and by the Spaniards at the time of the conquest was pronounced originally with a "sh" sound as opposed to current^{[clarification needed]} pronunciation and transcribed with an "x" as was the usage in Spanish at the time. The difference between the pronunciation and spelling of chicano and mexicano stems from the fact that the modern-day Spanish language experienced a change in pronunciation regarding a majority of words containing the "x" (for example, México, Ximenez, Xavier, Xarabe). The "sh" sound was dropped^{[clarification needed]} and in most, but not all, cases accompanied by a change of spelling (x to j). The word Chicano in the US was evidently not affected by this change.

The Chicano poet and writer Tino Villanueva traces the first documented use of the term to 1911 as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by University of Texas anthropologist José Limón.^[1] Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican American writer, Mario Suárez, published in the Arizona Quarterly in 1947.^[2] Mexican Americans were not identified as a racial/ethnic category prior to the 1980 US Census when the term Hispanic was first used.

Some believe that the word chicamo somehow became chicano, which, unlike chicamo, reflects the grammatical conventions of Spanish-language ethno- and demonyms, such as americano, castellano, or peruano. However, Chicanos generally do not agree that "chicamo" was ever a word used within the culture as its assertion is thus far entirely unsubstantiated. Therefore, most Chicanos do not agree that Chicano was ever derived from the word "chicamo". There is ample literary evidence to further substantiate that Chicano is a self-declaration as a large body of Chicano literature exists with publication dates far predating the 1950s.^{[citation needed]} There is also a substantial body of Chicano literature that predates both Raso and the Federal Census Bureau.

As stated in the Handbook of Texas:

"According to one explanation, the pre-Columbian tribes in Mexico called themselves Meshicas, and the Spaniards, employing the letter x (which at that time represented a sh and ch sound), spelled it Mexicas. The Indians later referred to themselves as Meshicanos and even as Shicanos, thus giving birth to the term Chicano."

Thus far, the origins of the word remain inconclusive as the term is not used outside Mexican-American communities, further indicating that the term is primarily self-identifying.

Meanings

See also: Chicano studies

The term's meanings are highly debatable, but self-described Chicanos view the term as a positive self-identifying social construction. Outside of Mexican-American communities the term is considered pejorative and takes on subjective view but usually consists of one or more of the following elements:

Ethnic identity

Chicano teenagers in Venice, California, 1974

From a popular perspective, the term Chicano became widely visible outside of Chicano communities during the American civil rights movement. It was commonly used during the mid 1960s by Mexican American activists,^[3] who, in attempt to reassert their civil rights, tried to rid the word of its polarizing negative connotation by reasserting a unique ethnic identity and political consciousness, proudly identifying themselves as Chicanos.

The term "chicano" may came from Mexican immigrants to the U.S. during the 1920's and 1930's, but by those originated from Chihuahua (not the term "Chi-"hua-hua" when they came into Texas where the locals made fun of the way the Chihuahuan Mexicans, primarily indigenous rural peasants, spoke a "less common" dialect of Spanish.

Others believe it was a corrupted term of "Chilango", an inhabitant from Mexico City or Central Mexico (i.e. the highland states of Mexico (state), Jalisco, Puebla (state) and Michoacan); and even from the term "Chileno" by the Chilean presence in mid 19th-century California, when miners from Chile arrived in the California Gold Rush (1848-51).

Political identity

According to the Handbook of Texas:

Inspired by the courage of the farmworkers, by the California strikes led by César Chávez, and by the Anglo-American youth revolt of the period, many Mexican-American university students came to participate in a crusade for social betterment that was known as the Chicano movement. They used Chicano to denote their rediscovered heritage, their youthful assertiveness, and their militant agenda. Though these students and their supporters used Chicano to refer to the entire Mexican-American population, they understood it to have a more direct application to the politically active parts of the Tejano community.^[4]

At certain points in the 1970s, Chicano was the preferred term for reference to Mexican-Americans, particularly in the scholarly literature.^{[citation needed]} However, as the term became politicized, its use fell out of favor as a means of referring to the entire population. Since then, Chicano has tended to refer to politicized Mexican-Americans.

Sabine Ulibarri, an author from Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico, once attempted to note that Chicano was a politically "loaded" term, although Ulibarri has recanted that assessment. Chicano is considered to be a positive term of honor by many.^{[citation needed]}

Ambiguous identity

• In the 1991 Culture Clash play "A Bowl of Beings", in response to Che Guevara's demand for a definition of "Chicano", an "armchair activist" cries out, "I still don't know!!"

• Bruce Novoa: "A Chicano lives in the space between the hyphen in Mexican-American", . . Houston:, 1990.^[5]

For Chicanos, the term usually implies being "neither from here, nor from there" in reference to the US and Mexico^{[citation needed]}. As a mixture of cultures from both countries, being Chicano represents the struggle of being accepted into the Anglo-dominated society of the United States while maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latino-cultured U.S. born Mexican child^{[citation needed]}.

Indigenous identity

• Rubén Salazar: "A Chicano is a Mexican-American with a non-Anglo image of himself."^[6]

• Leo Limón: "...because that's what a Chicano is, an indigenous Mexican American".^{[citation needed]}

One theory is the origin of such terminology is from the Maya temple Chichen Itza in the Yucatan Peninsula, a ruin of an ancient MesoAmerican civilization about 1,500 years ago. Chicano may be a Hispanized word for Chichen or the Mayan descendants, not limited to Aztec descendants or Nahuatl people. But essentially Chicanos, like some Mexicans, are American Indians who were influenced by the Spanish culture through conquest, while Latino or Hispanic refers to race/genetics. Therefore Latinos are Americans who are descendants of the Latin group (namely Spain, France, Italy and Portugal) and Hispanic refers to the descendants from the Iberian Peninsula (also known as Ibero-American).

Political device

• Reies Tijerina: "The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano'. They use it to divide us. We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America."^[7]

Reies Tijerina was a vocal claimant to the rights of Hispanics and Mexican Americans, and he remains a major figure of the early Chicano Movement.

Historic origins

The earliest known record of "Chicano" was thought to began in the late 19th or turn of the 20th century in Northwest Indiana by Mexican factory workers and railroad crews first arrived in the Chicagoland area (Chicago, Illinois), used the term among themselves, probably to mean chicanery or the working man. But in the Spanish language, the words Chico (small) -a-no (man) stands for "the little people".

Term of derision

Long a disparaging term in Mexico, the term Chicano gradually transformed from a class-based term of derision to one of ethnic pride and general usage within Mexican-American communities beginning with the rise of the Chicano movement in the 1960s. In their "Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia," Vicki Ruíz and Virginia Sánchez report that demographic differences in the adoption of the term existed; because of the prior vulgar connotations, it was more likely to be used by males than females, and as well, less likely to be used among those in a higher socioeconomic status. Usage was also generational, with the more assimilated third-generation members (again, more likely male) likely to adopt the usage. This group was also younger, of more radical persuasion, and less connected to a Mexican cultural heritage.^[8][9]

In his essay "Chicanismo" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures (2002), Jose Cuellar dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with a usage by young Mexican-American high school students.^[10]

Outside of Mexican American communities, the term might assume a negative meaning if it is used in a manner that embodies the prejudices and bigotries long directed at Mexican and Mexican-American people in the United States. For example, in one case, a prominent Chicana feminist writer and poet has indicated the following subjective meaning through her creative work.

• Ana Castillo: "[a] marginalized, brown woman who is treated as a foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives."^[11]

Ana Castillo has referred to herself as a Chicana, and her literary work reflects that she primarily considers the term to be a positive one of self-determination and political solidarity.^{[12][13][14][15][16]}

The Mexican archeologist and anthropologist Manuel Gamio reported in 1930 that the term chicamo (with an "m") was used as a derogatory term used by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican immigrants displaced during the Mexican revolution in the beginning of the early 20th century.^[17] At this time, the term Chicano began to reference those who resisted total assimilation, while the term Pochos referred (often pejoratively) to those who strongly advocated assimilation.^[18]

In Mexico, which by American standards would be considered classist or racist, the term is associated with a Mexican-American person of low importance class and poor morals.^[19][20][21] The term Chicano is widely known and used in Mexico.^{[citation needed]}

Rejection

While many Mexican Americans embrace the term Chicano, others prefer to identify themselves as:^{[citation needed]}

• American of Mexican descent.
• Hispanic.
• Hispanic American.
• Hispano/a or "Ibero-American".
• Latino/a, or "Latin"/"American-Latino".
• Latin American.
• Mexican(o/a).
• Mexican American.
• "Brown", people, race, pride, and so on.
• Californio, Nuevomexicano (New Mexican Spanish) or Tejano/a.
• (La) Raza, including "La Raza Bronza" (Bronze race) or "La Raza Cosmica" (Cosmic race).
• Spanish American/Spanish/Spaniards/Castillians/Castellanos (least common self-name).
• Basically Americans or some have mixed/integrated/assimilated into "Anglo-American".
• "White", "Mix" or mixed race people, or the transracial/Passing (race) identity issues of Mexican-Americans.

Norteño as in the Mexicans referred to the Northern Mexico as el Norte as opposed to Sureño, although anyone from the US is NorteAmericano, since Mexico and Latin America (Central and South) long identified themselves as Americanos. Mexican Americans don't actually call themselves Norteños. The only people who identify themselves as Norteños are Mexicans from Northern Mexico, compared to Sureño or Mexicans from Southern Mexico. The term means a Northern Mexican or "Mexicano del Norte" versus Southern Mexican or "Mexicano del sur".

Social aspects

Chicanos, regardless of their generational status, tend to connect their culture to the indigenous peoples of North America and to a nation of Aztlán.^[22] According to the Aztec legend, Aztlán is a region; Chicano nationalists have equated it with the Southwestern United States. Some historians may place Aztlán in Nayarit or the Caribbean while other historians entirely disagree, and make a distinction between legend and the contemporary socio-political ideology.

Political aspects

Main article: Chicano Movement

César Chávez at a United Farmworkers rally, 1974

Many currents came together to produce the revived Chicano political movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Early struggles were against school segregation, but the Mexican American cause, or La Causa as it was called, soon came under the banner of the United Farm Workers and César Chávez. However, Corky Gonzales and Reies Tijerina stirred up old tensions about New Mexican land claims with roots going back to before the Mexican-American War. Simultaneous movements like the Young Lords, to empower youth, question patriarchy, democratize the Church, end police brutality, and end the Vietnam War all intersected with other ethnic nationalist, peace, countercultural, and feminist movements.

Since Chicanismo covers a wide array of political, religious and ethnic beliefs, and not everybody agrees with what exactly a Chicano is, most new Latino immigrants see it as a lost cause, as a lost culture, because Chicanos do not identify with Mexico or wherever their parents migrated from as new immigrants do. Chicanoism is an appreciation of a historical movement, but also is used by many to bring a new revived politicized feeling to voters young and old in the defense of Mexican and Mexican-American rights. People descended from Aztlan (both in the contemporary U.S. and in Mexico) use the Chicano ideology to create a platform for fighting for immigration reform and equality for all people.

For some, Chicano ideals involve a rejection of borders. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo transformed the Rio Grande region from a rich cultural center to a rigid border poorly enforced by the United States government. At the end of the Mexican-American War, 80,000 Spanish-Mexican-Indian people were forced into sudden U.S. habitation.^[23] As a result, Chicano identification is aligned with the idea of Aztlán, which extends to the Aztec period of Mexico, celebrating a time preceding land division.^[24] Paired with the dissipation of militant political efforts of the Chicano movement in the 1960s was the emergence of the Chicano generation. Like their political predecessors, the Chicano generation rejects the "immigrant/foreigner" categorization status.^[24] Chicano identity has expanded from its political origins to incorporate a broader community vision of social integration and nonpartisan political participation.^[25]

The shared Spanish language, Catholic faith, close contact with their political homeland (Mexico) to the south, a history of labor segregation, ethnic exclusion and racial discrimination encourage a united Chicano or Mexican folkloric tradition in the United States. Ethnic cohesiveness is a resistance strategy to assimilation and the accompanying cultural dissolution.

Cultural aspects

Main article: Chicanismo

The term Chicano is also used to describe the literary, artistic, and musical movements that emerged with the Chicano Movement.

Literature

Main article: Chicano literature

Chicano literature tends to focus on themes of identity, discrimination, and culture, with an emphasis on validating Mexican American and Chicano culture in the United States. Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales's "Yo Soy Joaquin" is one of the first examples of Chicano poetry, while José Antonio Villarreal's Pocho is widely recognized as the first major Chicano/a novel. The novel, "Chicano" by Richard Vasquez, was the first novel about Mexican-Americans to be released by a major publisher (Doubleday, 1970). It was widely read in high schools and Universities during the 1970s, and has now been recognized as a literary classic. Vasquez's writing has been compared to Upton Sinclair and John Steinbeck. Other important writers include Rudolfo Anaya, Sandra Cisneros, Gary Soto, Raul Salinas, Oscar Zeta Acosta, John Rechy, Ana Castillo, Denise Chávez, Benjamin Alire Sáenz, Dagoberto Gilb, Alicia Gaspar de Alba and Gloria Anzaldua .

See also: Chicano poetry

Visual arts

QuetzalCoatlicue dance troupe member evokes the spirit of the four winds to bless the first train of the Hiawatha Line Rail to arrive at Midtown Station. The Hiawatha Project. Minneapolis, Minn.; United States. 2004.

In the visual arts, works by Chicanos address similar themes as works in literature. The preferred media for Chicano art are murals and graphic arts. San Diego's Chicano Park, home to the largest collection of murals in the world, was created as an outgrowth of the city's political movement by Chicanos. Rasquache art is a unique style subset of the Chicano Arts movement.

Chicano performance art blends humor and pathos for tragi-comic effect as shown by Los Angeles' comedy troupe Culture Clash and Mexican-born performance artist Guillermo Gomez-Pena and Nao Bustamante is a Chicana Artist known internationally for her conceptual art pieces and as a participant in Work of Art: The next Great Artist produced by Sarah Jessica Parker. Lalo Alcaraz often depicts the issues of Chicanos in his cartoons called "La Cucaracha".

One of the most powerful and far-reaching cultural aspects of Chicano culture is the indigenous current that strongly roots Chicano culture to the American continent. It also unifies Chicanismo within the larger Pan Indian Movement. Since its arrival in 1974, what is known as Danza Azteca in the U.S., (and known by several names in its homeland of the central States of Mexico: danza Conchera, De la Conquista, Chichimeca, and so on.) has had a deep impact in Chicano muralism, graphic design, tattoo art (flash), poetry, music, and literature. Lowrider cars also figure prominently as functional art in the Chicano community.

Music

Lalo Guerrero is regarded as the "founder of Chicano music".^{[citation needed]} Beginning in the 1930s, he wrote songs in the big band and swing genres that were popular at the time. He expanded his repertoire to include songs written in traditional genres of the Mexican music, and during the farmworkers' rights campaign, wrote music in support of César Chávez and the United Farm Workers.

Other Chicano/Mexican American singers include Selena, who sang a variety of Mexican, Tejano, and American popular music, but was killed in 1995 at the age of 23; Zack de la Rocha, lead vocalist of Rage Against the Machine and social activist; and Los Lonely Boys, a Texas style country rock band who have not ignored their Mexican American roots in their music. In recent years, a growing Tex-Mex polka band trend from Mexican immigrants (i.e. Conjunto or Norteño) has influenced much of new Chicano folk music, especially in large market Spanish language radio stations and on television music video programs in the U.S. The band Quetzal is known for its political songs.

Rock

Main article: Chicano rock

In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, a wave of Chicano pop music surfaced through innovative musicians Johnny Rodriguez, Ritchie Valens and Linda Ronstadt. Joan Baez, who was also of Mexican-American descent, included Hispanic themes in some of her protest folk songs. Chicano rock is rock music performed by Chicano groups or music with themes derived from Chicano culture.

There are two undercurrents in Chicano rock. One is a devotion to the original rhythm and blues roots of Rock and roll including Ritchie Valens, Sunny and the Sunglows, and ? and the Mysterians. Groups inspired by this include Sir Douglas Quintet, Thee Midniters, Los Lobos, War, Tierra, and El Chicano, and, of course, the Chicano Blues Man himself, the late Randy Garribay.

The second theme is the openness to Latin American sounds and influences. Trini Lopez, Santana, Malo, Azteca, Toro, Ozomatli and other Chicano Latin Rock groups follow this approach. Chicano rock crossed paths of other Latin rock genres (Rock en espanol) by Cubans, Puerto Ricans, such as Joe Bataan, and Ralphi Pagan and South America (La Nueva Cancion). Rock band The Mars Volta combines elements of progressive rock with traditional Mexican folk music and Latin rhythms along with Cedric Bixler-Zavala's Spanglish lyrics.^[26]

Chicano punk is a branch of Chicano rock. Examples of the genre include music by the bands The Zeros, Los Illegals, The Brat, The Plugz, Manic Hispanic, Los Crudos, The Casualties, and the Cruzados; these bands emerged from the California punk scene. Some music historians argue that Chicanos of Los Angeles in the late 1970s might have independently co-founded punk rock along with the already-acknowledged founders from British-European sources when introduced to the US in major cities.^{[citation needed]} The rock band ? Mark and the Mysterians, which was composed primarily of Mexican American musicians, was the first band to be described as punk rock. The term was reportedly coined in 1971 by rock critic Dave Marsh in a review of their show for Creem magazine.^[27]

Jazz

Although Latin Jazz is most popularly associated with artists from the Caribbean (particularly Cuba) and Brazil, young Mexican Americans have played a role in its development over the years, going back to the 1930s and early 1940s, the era of the zoot suit, when young Mexican American musicians in Los Angeles and San Jose began to experiment with banda, a Jazz-like Mexican music that has grown recently in popularity among Mexican Americans such as Jenni Rivera.

Rap

Main article: Chicano rap

Chicano rap is a unique style of hip hop music which started with Kid Frost, who saw some mainstream exposure in the early 1990s. While Mellow Man Ace was the first mainstream rapper to use Spanglish, Frost's song "La Raza" paved the way for its use in American hip hop. Chicano rap tends to discuss themes of importance to young urban Chicanos. Some of today's Chicano artists include Psycho Realm, Sick Symphonies, Street Platoon, El Vuh, Baby Bash, Lil Rob, and Lighter Shade Of Brown as well as A.K.A. Down Kilo with "Definition of an Ese" which denotes a historical account of Chicano popularity in Southern California .

Pop and R&B

Paula DeAnda, Frankie J, old member of the Kumbia Kings and associated with Baby Bash.

See also

Latino and Hispanic American portal

• Caló (Chicano)
• Casta
• Chicanismo
• Chicano movement
• Chicano Moratorium
• Chicano nationalism
• Chicano Rap
• Cholo
• Chileans (and Chilean American)
• Hispano (and Spanish American)
• Tejano
• Ethnicity (United States Census)
• George Lopez
• List of Mexican Americans
• Los Siete de la Raza
• Mestizo
• Mexican Americans
• Murals, i.e. Chicano Park, San Diego
• Pachuco
• Plaza de César Chávez
• Race (U.S. Census)

References

1. ^ Félix Rodríguez González, ed. Spanish Loanwords in the English Language. A Tendency towards Hegemony Reversal. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Villanueva is referring to Limón's essay "The Folk Performance of Chicano and the Cultural Limits of Political Ideology," available via ERIC. Limón refers to use of the word in a 1911 report titled "Hot tamales" in the Spanish language newspaper La Crónica in 1911.
2. ^ Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle. "Chicano: Origin and Meaning." American Speech 44.3 (Autumn 1969): 225-230.
3. ^ Moore, J. W., & Cuéllar, A. B. (1970). Mexican Americans. Ethnic groups in American life series. Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 149. ISBN 0135794900
4. ^ De León, Arnoldo (2001). "Chicano". Handbook of Texas. 190. Austin: University of Texas. 546. Bibcode 1975Sci...190..546W. doi:10.1126/science.190.4214.546. http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/CC/pfc2_print.html. Retrieved 2007-07-07. 
5. ^ Bruce-Novoa, Juan (1990). Retro/Space: Collected Essays on Chicano Literature: Theory and History. Houston: Arte Público Press. 
6. ^ Salazar, Ruben (1970-02-06). "Who is a Chicano? And what is it the Chicanos want?". Los Angeles Times. 
7. ^ Tijerina, Reies; José Ángel Gutiérrez (2000). They Called Me King Tiger: My Struggle for the Land and Our Rights. Houston: Art Público Press. ISBN 1558853022. 
8. ^ Vicki L. Ruiz & Virginia Sanchez Korrol, editors. Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia. Indiana University Press, 2006.
9. ^ Maria Herrera-Sobek. Chicano folklore; a handbook. Greenwood Press 2006.
10. ^ José B. Cuéllar. CHICANISMO/XICANISM@. In: Davíd Carrasco, Editor-in-Chief. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures: The Civilizations of Mexico and Central America, Oxford University Press, 2002
11. ^ Ana Castillo (2006-05-25). How I Became a Genre-jumper (TV broadcast of a lecture). Santa Barbara, California: UCTV Channel 17. 
12. ^ "VG: Artist Biography: Castillo, Ana". Voices.cla.umn.edu. http://voices.cla.umn.edu/vg/Bios/entries/castillo_ana.html. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
13. ^ "Anna Castillo". Speakingofstories.org. http://www.speakingofstories.org/Author%20Bios/anna_castillo.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
14. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ana_Castillo
15. ^ "The Chicana Subject in Ana Castillo's Fiction and the Discursive Zone of Chicana/o Theory". Eric.ed.gov. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ769174&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ769174. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
16. ^ "anacastillo.com » Bio". Anacastillo.com. http://www.anacastillo.com/a/index.php?page_id=6. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
17. ^ Gamio, Manuel (1930). Mexican Immigration to the United States: A Study of Human Migration and Adjustment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
18. ^ See: Adalberto M. Guerrero, Macario Saldate, IV, and Salomon R. Baldenegro. "Chicano: the term and its meanings." A Paper Written for Hispanic Heritage Month. Arizona Association of Chicanos for Higher Education 1999 conference Newsletter.
19. ^ "Chicano Art". http://www.umich.edu/~ac213/student_projects/ca/background.htm. "Thus, the "Chicano" term carried an inferior, negative connotation because it was usually used to describe a worker who had to move from job to job to be able to survive. Chicanos were the low class Mexican-Americans." 
20. ^ McConnell, Scott (1997-12-31). "Americans no more? - immigration and assimilation". National Review. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n25_v49/ai_20208927/pg_4. "In the late 1960s, a nascent Mexican-American movement adopted for itself the word "Chicano" (which had a connotation of low class) and broke forth with surprising suddenness." 
21. ^ Alcoff, Linda Martín (2005). "Latino vs. Hispanic: The politics of ethnic names". Philosophy & Social Criticism (SAGE Publications) 31 (4): 395–407. doi:10.1177/0191453705052972. http://psc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/31/4/395. 
22. ^ Chang, Richard (2001-05-31). "The Allure of Aztlan; Visual art: An old myth is emerging as a new reality for multicultural California". Orange County Register. http://www.aztlan.net/allure.htm. "The myth of Aztlan was revived during the Chicano Movement of the 1960s and 1970s as a reconnection to an indigenous homeland." 
23. ^ Castro, Rafaela G. (2001). Chicano Folklore. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195146395. 
24. ^ ^{a b} Hurtado, Aida; Gurin, Patricia (2004). Chicana/o Identity in a Changing U.S. Society. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 10–91. 
25. ^ Montejano, David (1999). Chicano Politics and Society in the Late Twentieth Century. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292752148. 
26. ^ "HARP Magazine". Harpmagazine.com. http://www.harpmagazine.com/articles/detail.cfm?article_id=6393. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
27. ^ "The revolution that saved rock". CNN. 2003-11-13. http://www.cnn.com/2003/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/13/punk.box/index.html. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 

• Villanueva, Tino (1985). "Chicanos (selección)" (in Spanish). Philosophy & Social Criticism (Mexico: Lecturas Mexicanas, número 889 FCE/SEP) 31 (4): 7. doi:10.1177/0191453705052972. 
• John R. Chavez (1984). "The Lost Land: A Chicano Image of the American Southwest", New Mexico University Publications.
• F. Arturo Rosales, "Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement" (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1996). ISBN 1-55885-201-8

Further reading

• Chavez, John R. "The Chicano Image and the Myth of Aztlan Rediscovered". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine Press, St. James, NY. ISBN 1-881-089-97-5
• Natalia Molina, Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879-1940, University of California Press, 2006.
• Michael A. Olivas, Colored Men And Hombres Aquí: Hernandez V. Texas and the Emergence of Mexican American Lawyering, Arte Público Press, 2006.
• Rodolfo Acuna, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos,Longman, 2006.
• López-Calvo, Ignacio. Latino Los Angeles in Film and Fiction: The Cultural Production of Social Anxiety. University of Arizona Press, 2011. ISBN 0816529264

External links

• Home of the March 25 Coalition, Latinos For Peace, Latinos Against the War and The Art of Aztlan
• Nuevo Plan de Aztlan for the 21st Century
• Corky Gonzalez and the Young Lords
• California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives - In the Chicano/Latino Collections
• California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives - Digital Chicano Art
• ImaginArte - Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art
• Calisphere > California Cultures > Hispanic Americans
• The Original Chicano Webzine - News, Discussions and Commentaries
• Chicano/Latino Studies, University of California, Irvine

Miscellaneous