Kituba language

Kituba
Kituba, Kikongo ya leta
Spoken in	Central Africa
Native speakers	5.4 million  (1987–1990) Several million L2 speakers
Language family	Kongo-based creole Kituba
Official status
Regulated by	No official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-3	either: mkw – Kituba (Congo-Brazzaville) ktu – Kituba (Congo-Kinshasa)
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Kituba is a widely used lingua franca in Central Africa. It is a creole language^[1] based on Kikongo, a family of closely related Bantu languages. It is an official language in Congo-Brazzaville and Congo-Kinshasa.

It is not entirely accurate to call Kituba a creole language as it lacks the distinction between superstrate and substrate influence that is typical of creole development.

Names

Kituba is known by many names among its speakers. In the Republic of Congo it is called Munukutuba or Kituba. The former is a grammatically incorrect phrase which means literally "I to speak". The latter means simply "speech". The name Kituba is used in the constitution of the Republic of Congo.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it is called Kikongo ya leta (i.e. Kikongo of the state administration), but it is often called in short Kikongo, especially out of the region of ethnic Bakongo people. The constitution of the Democratic Republic of Congo lists Kikongo as one of the national languages. In fact, it refers to Kikongo ya leta (i.e. Kituba), because a translation of the constitution itself is written in Kituba but no translation exists in Kikongo!^{[clarification needed][discuss]}

There are also other historical names such as Kibulamatadi, Kikwango, Ikeleve, and Kizabave but they have largely fallen out of use. In the academic circles the language is called Kikongo-Kituba.

Geographic distribution

Dialect map of Kikongo and Kituba

The majority of Kituba speakers live in Congo-Kinshasa. It is spoken as the primary lingua franca in the provinces of Kongo Central, Kwango and Kwilu and to a lesser extent in Kinshasa, Mai-Ndombe and Kasai.

Kituba is the largest language of Congo-Brazzaville. It is spoken in the southern half of the country, in regions of Kouilou (especially in Pointe-Noire), Niari, Bouenza, Lékoumou, Pool and in the capital Brazzaville. Lingala is more popular in the north.

The status of Kituba in Angola is not known. It is probable that it is understood by some of the Bakongo people there, especially those who have lived in Congo-Brazzaville or Congo-Kinshasa as refugees or otherwise.

Official status

Kituba is a national language in Congo-Brazzaville and Congo-Kinshasa. In practice the term national language means that it is a language of regional administration and elementary education.

A national language is also one that is used for public and mass communication. National public radios and televisions in the Democratic Republic of Congo and in Congo-Brazaville use Kituba as one of their main languages for evening news.

History

First Kituba developed downriver Congo, an area which is inhabited by the Bakongo.

There are several theories on how Kituba came into being. One theory claims that it had already evolved at the time of the Kongo Kingdom as a simplified interdialectal trade language, which the European colonists subsequently took into use for regional administration. Another theory claims that a simplified trade language called Kifyoti was developed at the Portuguese coastal trading post and it was later spread upstream by the Christian missionaries to the region between the Kwango and the Kasai rivers where it evolved further (hence the name Kikwango). Yet another theory emphasizes the construction of the Matadi-Kinshasa railroad at the end of the 19th century, which involved forced labour from West Africa, lower Congo, and the neighbouring Bandundu region. The workers had diverse linguistic backgrounds which gave birth to a grammatically simplified language.

Regardless of the genesis, Kituba has established itself in the large towns that were found during the colonial period between 1885 and 1960. Kituba is spoken as the primary language in the large Bakongo cities of Moanda, Boma, Matadi, Pointe-Noire, Dolisie, Nkayi, and Brazzaville and also in large non-Bakongo cities of Bandundu, Kikwit, and Ilebo.

Phonology

Vowels

Kituba has five vowel phonemes: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/. They are very similar to the vowels of Spanish and Italian. Vowels are never reduced, regardless of stress. The vowels are pronounced as follows:

• /a/ is pronounced like the "a" in father
• /e/ is pronounced like the "e" in bed
• /i/ is pronounced like the "i" in ski or ring
• /o/ is pronounced like the first part of the "o" in home, or like a tenser version of "o" in "lot"
• /u/ is pronounced like the "ue" in blue

Consonants

	bilabial	labiodental	dental	alveolar	postalveolar	palatal	velar	glottal
plosive	p, b		t, d				k, ɡ
prenasalized	mp, mb	mf mv	nt, nd	ns nz			ŋk, ŋɡ
nasal	m		n				ŋ
fricative		f v		s z				(h)
lateral				l
approximant	w					j

Notes:

• Word-initial voiceless prenasalized consonants are reduced to simple consonants in some dialects. For example mpimpa and nkento become pimpa and kento in Kituba of Pointe-Noire.
• Some dialects add stop to prenasalized alveolar fricatives so that for example Kinsasa and nzila become Kintsasa and ndzila.
• Alveolar fricatives may become postalveolar before /i/.

Grammar

Pronouns

Kituba has subject and object pronouns. The object pronouns are used in place of subject pronouns when the subject is being emphasized.

Person	Singular		Plural
	Subject	Object	Subject	Object
1st	mu	munu, mono	beto	beto
2nd	nge	nge	beno	beno
3rd	yá	yandi	ba	bau

Nouns

Kituba has kept by and large the noun classes of ethnic Kikongo with some modifications. The classes 9 and 11 have in effect merged with the singular class with zero prefix, and their plural is formed with generic plural class prefix ba-.

singular			plural
class	prefix	example	class	prefix	example
0	–	mama ('mother)	2	ba-	bamama (mothers)
1	mu-	muntu (person)	2	ba-	bantu (people)
3	mu-	mulangi (bottle)	4	mi-	milangi (bottles)
5	di-	dinkondo (banana)	6	ma-	mankondo (bananas)
7	ki-	kima (thing)	8	bi-	bima (things)
9	n-/m-	nkosi (lion)	2+9	ba-n-	bankosi (lions)
11	lu-	ludimi (tongue)	2+11	ba-lu-	baludimi (tongues)
12	ka-	kakima (trifle)	13	tu-	tubima (trifles)
14	bu	bumbote (goodness)
15	ku-	kubanza (to think, thinking)

Verbs

Kituba has well-developed verbal system involving tense and aspect. Most verb forms have long and short versions. The long forms are used in formal written communication whereas the short forms have developed for spoken communication.

The irregular conjugation of the verb kuvanda or kuvuanda (to be) is presented in the table below. It is the only irregular verb in Kituba.

Tense	Long form	Short form	Example	Translation
Present and immediate future	kele	ke	Yau kele nkosi.	It is a lion.
Future	kele/ata kuv(u)anda	ke/ta v(u)anda	Mu ta vuanda tata.	I will be a father.
Present progressive	kele kuv(u)andaka	ke v(u)andaka	Nge ke vuandaka zoba.	You are being stupid.
Future progressive	ata kuv(u)andaka	ta v(u)andaka	Beno ta vuandaka ya kukuela.	You will be married.
Past	v(u)andaka		Yandi vuanda kuna.	He was there.
Past progressive	v(u)andaka		Beto vuandaka banduku.	We used to be friends.
Past perfect	mene kuv(u)anda	me v(u)anda	Yandi me vuanda na Matadi.	He was in Matadi.
Past perfect progressive	mene kuv(u)andaka	me v(u)andaka	Yandi me vuandaka mulongi.	She has been a teacher.

All other verbs are conjugated with the help of auxiliary verbs. The conjugation of the verb kusala (to do) is presented in the table below.

Tense	Long form	Short form	Example	Translation
Present and immediate future	kele kusala	ke sala	Yandi ke sala.	He works. / He will work.
Present progressive	kele kusalaka	ke salaka	Yandi ke salaka.	He is working.
Past	salaka	salaka	Yandi salaka.	He worked.
Immediate past	mene sala	me sala	Yandi me sala.	He has worked.
Immediate past progressive	mene salaka	me salaka	Yandi me salaka.	He has been working.
Past progressive	vuandaka kusala	va sala	Yandi vuandaka kusala.	He used to work.
Narrative	sala	sala
Future	ata sala	ta sala	Yandi ta sala.	He will work.
Future progressive	ata salaka	ta salaka	Yandi ta salaka.	He will be working.

Lexicon

The bulk of Kituba words come from Kikongo. Other Bantu languages have influenced it as well, including Kiyaka, Kimbala, Kisongo, Kiyansi, Lingala, and Swahili. In addition, many words have been borrowed from French, Portuguese, and English. These include:

• sandúku (Swah. sanduku)
• matáta (Swah. matata)
• letá (Fr. l'état)
• kamiyó (Fr. camion)
• sodá/solodá (Fr. soldat)
• masínu (Fr. machine)
• mísa (Port. missa)
• kilápi (Port. lápis)
• katekisimu (Eng. catechism)
• bóyi (Eng. houseboy)
• sapatu (Port. sapato)
• mesa (Port./Sp. mesa)
• dikopa (Sp. copa)
• simisi (Fr. chemise)

References

1. ^ Pidgins and Creoles: an introduction by Jacques Arends, Pieter Muysken, Norval Smith (page 17)

External links

• Ethnologue report for Kituba (DRC)
• Ethnologue report for Kituba (Congo)
• PanAfrican L10n page on Kongo * Kituba
• USA Foreign Service Institute (FSI) Kituba basic course