Genetic testing

Genetic testing (also called DNA-based tests) is among the newest and most sophisticated of techniques^[1] used to test for genetic disorders which involves direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. Other genetic tests include biochemical tests for such gene products as enzymes and other proteins and for microscopic examination of stained or fluorescent chromosomes. Genetic tests are used for several reasons, including:

• carrier screening, which involves identifying unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to be expressed
• preimplantation genetic diagnosis (see the side bar, Screening Embryos for Disease)
• prenatal diagnostic testing
• newborn screening
• Genealogical DNA test (for genetic genealogy purposes)
• presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders such as Huntington's disease
• presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers and Alzheimer's disease
• confirmational diagnosis of a symptomatic individual
• forensic/identity testing

Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's paternity (genetic father) or a person's ancestry. Normally, every person carries two copies of every gene (with the exception of genes related to sex-linked traits, which are only inherited from the mother by males), one inherited from their mother, one inherited from their father. The human genome is believed to contain around 20,000 - 25,000 genes. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins.^[2] Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed.^[3][4]

Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling.^{[citation needed]}

Types

Genetic testing is "the analysis of, chromosomes (DNA), proteins, and certain metabolites in order to detect heritable disease-related genotypes, mutations, phenotypes, or karyotypes for clinical purposes."^[5] It can provide information about a person's genes and chromosomes throughout life. Available types of testing include:

• Newborn screening: Newborn screening is used just after birth to identify genetic disorders that can be treated early in life. The routine testing of infants for certain disorders is the most widespread use of genetic testing—millions of babies are tested each year in the United States. All states currently test infants for phenylketonuria (a genetic disorder that causes mental illness if left untreated) and congenital hypothyroidism (a disorder of the thyroid gland).
• Diagnostic testing: Diagnostic testing is used to diagnose or rule out a specific genetic or chromosomal condition. In many cases, genetic testing is used to confirm a diagnosis when a particular condition is suspected based on physical mutations and symptoms. Diagnostic testing can be performed at any time during a person's life, but is not available for all genes or all genetic conditions. The results of a diagnostic test can influence a person's choices about health care and the management of the disease.
• Carrier testing: Carrier testing is used to identify people who carry one copy of a gene mutation that, when present in two copies, causes a genetic disorder. This type of testing is offered to individuals who have a family history of a genetic disorder and to people in ethnic groups with an increased risk of specific genetic conditions. If both parents are tested, the test can provide information about a couple's risk of having a child with a genetic condition.
• Prenatal testing: Prenatal testing is used to detect changes in a fetus's genes or chromosomes before birth. This type of testing is offered to couples with an increased risk of having a baby with a genetic or chromosomal disorder. In some cases, prenatal testing can lessen a couple's uncertainty or help them decide whether to abort the pregnancy. It cannot identify all possible inherited disorders and birth defects, however.
• Preimplantation genetic diagnosis: Genetic testing procedures that are performed on human embryos prior to the implantation as part of an in vitro fertilization procedure.
• Predictive and presymptomatic testing: Predictive and presymptomatic types of testing are used to detect gene mutations associated with disorders that appear after birth, often later in life. These tests can be helpful to people who have a family member with a genetic disorder, but who have no features of the disorder themselves at the time of testing. Predictive testing can identify mutations that increase a person's chances of developing disorders with a genetic basis, such as certain types of cancer. For example, an individual with a mutation in BRCA1 has a 65% cumulative risk of breast cancer.^[6] Presymptomatic testing can determine whether a person will develop a genetic disorder, such as hemochromatosis (an iron overload disorder), before any signs or symptoms appear. The results of predictive and presymptomatic testing can provide information about a person’s risk of developing a specific disorder and help with making decisions about medical care.
• Forensic testing: Forensic testing uses DNA sequences to identify an individual for legal purposes. Unlike the tests described above, forensic testing is not used to detect gene mutations associated with disease. This type of testing can identify crime or catastrophe victims, rule out or implicate a crime suspect, or establish biological relationships between people (for example, paternity).
• Parental testing: This type of genetic test uses special DNA markers to identify the same or similar inheritance patterns between related individuals. Based on the fact that we all inherit half of our DNA from the father, and half from the mother, DNA scientists test individuals to find the match of DNA sequences at some highly differential markers to draw the conclusion of relatedness.
• Research testing: Research testing includes finding unknown genes, learning how genes work and advancing our understanding of genetic conditions. The results of testing done as part of a research study are usually not available to patients or their healthcare providers.
• Pharmacogenomics: type of genetic testing that determines the influence of genetic variation on drug response.

Medical procedure

Genetic testing is often done as part of a genetic consultation and as of mid-2008 there were more than 1,200 clinically applicable genetic tests available.^[7] Once a person decides to proceed with genetic testing, a medical geneticist, genetic counselor, primary care doctor, or specialist can order the test after obtaining informed consent.

Genetic tests are performed on a sample of blood, hair, skin, amniotic fluid (the fluid that surrounds a fetus during pregnancy), or other tissue. For example, a medical procedure called a buccal smear uses a small brush or cotton swab to collect a sample of cells from the inside surface of the cheek. Alternatively, a small amount of saline mouthwash may be swished in the mouth to collect the cells. The sample is sent to a laboratory where technicians look for specific changes in chromosomes, DNA, or proteins, depending on the suspected disorder. The laboratory reports the test results in writing to a person's doctor or genetic counselor.

Routine newborn screening tests are done on a small blood sample obtained by pricking the baby's heel with a lancet.

Interpreting results

The results of genetic tests are not always straightforward, which often makes them challenging to interpret and explain. When interpreting test results, healthcare professionals consider a person’s medical history, family history, and the type of genetic test that was done.

A positive test result means that the laboratory found a change in a particular gene, chromosome, or protein of interest. Depending on the purpose of the test, this result may confirm a diagnosis, indicate that a person is a carrier of a particular genetic mutation, identify an increased risk of developing a disease (such as cancer) in the future, or suggest a need for further testing. Because family members have some genetic material in common, a positive test result may also have implications for certain blood relatives of the person undergoing testing. It is important to note that a positive result of a predictive or presymptomatic genetic test usually cannot establish the exact risk of developing a disorder. Also, health professionals typically cannot use a positive test result to predict the course or severity of a condition.

A negative test result means that the laboratory did not find a dangerous copy of the gene, chromosome, or protein under consideration. This result can indicate that a person is not affected by a particular disorder, is not a carrier of a specific genetic mutation, or does not have an increased risk of developing a certain disease. It is possible, however, that the test missed a disease-causing genetic alteration because many tests cannot detect all genetic changes that can cause a particular disorder. Further testing may be required to confirm a negative result.

In some cases, a negative result might not give any useful information. This type of result is called uninformative, indeterminate, inconclusive, or ambiguous. Uninformative test results sometimes occur because everyone has common, natural variations in their DNA, called polymorphisms, that do not affect health. If a genetic test finds a change in DNA that has not been associated with a disorder in other people, it can be difficult to tell whether it is a natural polymorphism or a disease-causing mutation. An uninformative result cannot confirm or rule out a specific diagnosis, and it cannot indicate whether a person has an increased risk of developing a disorder. In some cases, testing other affected and unaffected family members can help clarify this type of result.

Risks and limitations

The physical risks associated with most genetic tests are very small, particularly for those tests that require only a blood sample or buccal smear (a procedure that samples cells from the inside surface of the cheek). The procedures used for prenatal testing carry a small but real risk of losing the pregnancy (miscarriage) because they require a sample of amniotic fluid or tissue from around the fetus.

Many of the risks associated with genetic testing involve the emotional, social, or financial consequences of the test results. People may feel angry, depressed, anxious, or guilty about their results. In some cases, genetic testing creates tension within a family because the results can reveal information about other family members in addition to the person who is tested. The possibility of genetic discrimination in employment or insurance is also a concern. Some individuals avoid genetic testing out of fear it will affect their ability to purchase insurance or find a job.^[8] Health insurers do not currently require applicants for coverage to undergo genetic testing, and when insurers encounter genetic information, it is subject to the same confidentiality protections as any other sensitive health information.^[9] In the United States, the use of genetic information is governed by the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) (see discussion below in the section on government regulation).

Genetic testing can provide only limited information about an inherited condition. The test often can't determine if a person will show symptoms of a disorder, how severe the symptoms will be, or whether the disorder will progress over time. Another major limitation is the lack of treatment strategies for many genetic disorders once they are diagnosed.

A genetics professional can explain in detail the benefits, risks, and limitations of a particular test. It is important that any person who is considering genetic testing understand and weigh these factors before making a decision.

Direct-to-Consumer genetic testing

Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) genetic testing is a type of genetic test that is accessible directly to the consumer without having to go through a health care professional. Usually, to obtain a genetic test, health care professionals such as doctors acquire the permission of the patient and order the desired test. DTC genetic tests, however, allow consumers to bypass this process and order one themselves. There are a variety of DTC tests, ranging from testing for breast cancer alleles to mutations linked to cystic fibrosis. Benefits of DTC testing are the accessibility of tests to consumers, promotion of proactive healthcare and the privacy of genetic information. Possible additional risks of DTC testing are the lack of governmental regulation and the potential misinterpretation of genetic information.

Controversy

DTC genetic testing has been controversial due to outspoken opposition within the scientific community. Critics of DTC testing argue against the risks involved, the unregulated advertising and marketing claims, and the overall lack of governmental oversight.^[10]

DTC testing involves many of the same risks associated with any genetic test. One of the more obvious and dangerous of these is the possibility of severe misreading of test results. Without professional guidance, consumers can potentially misinterpret genetic information, causing them to be deluded about their personal health.

Some advertising for direct-to-consumer genetic testing has been criticized as conveying an exaggerated and inaccurate message about the connection between genetic information and disease risk, utilizing emotions as a selling factor. An advertisement for a BRCA-predictive genetic test for breast cancer stated: “There is no stronger antidote for fear than information.”^[11]

Government regulation in the United States

Currently, the U.S. has no strong Federal regulation moderating the DTC market. Though there are several hundred tests available, only a handful are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); these are sold as at-home test kits, and are therefore considered "medical devices" over which the FDA may assert jurisdiction. Other types of DTC tests require customers to mail in DNA samples for testing; it is difficult for the FDA to exercise jurisdiction over these types of tests, because the actual testing is completed in the laboratories of providers. As of 2007, the FDA had not yet officially substantiated with scientific evidence the claimed accuracy of the majority of direct-to-consumer genetic tests.^[12]

With regard to genetic testing and information in general, legislation in the United States called the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act prohibits group health plans and health insurers from denying coverage to a healthy individual or charging that person higher premiums based solely on a genetic predisposition to developing a disease in the future. The legislation also bars employers from using individuals’ genetic information when making hiring, firing, job placement, or promotion decisions.^[13] The legislation, the first of its kind in the U.S.,^[14] was passed by the United States Senate on April 24, 2008, on a vote of 95-0, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on May 21, 2008.^[15][16] It went into effect on November 21, 2009.

In popular culture

Some possible future ethical problems of genetic testing were considered in the science fiction film Gattaca, the novel Next, and the science fiction anime series "Gundam Seed". Also some films which include the topic of genetic testing include, "The Island" and the "Resident Evil" series.

See also

Molecular Anthropology portal

• Personalized medicine
• Full Genome Sequencing
• Gene theft
• Genetic counseling
• List of genetic disorders
• List of genetic genealogy topics
• List of human genes
• Misattributed paternity

References

1. ^ Human Genome Project Information. Gene Testing
2. ^ "What is genetic testing? - Genetics Home Reference". Ghr.nlm.nih.gov. 2011-05-30. http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting. Retrieved 2011-06-07. 
3. ^ "Genetic Testing: MedlinePlus". Nlm.nih.gov. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html. Retrieved 2011-06-07. 
4. ^ "Definitions of Genetic Testing". Definitions of Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães). EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project. 2008-09-11. http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml. Retrieved 2008-08-10. ^{[dead link]}
5. ^ Holtzman NA, Murphy PD, Watson MS, Barr PA (October 1997). "Predictive genetic testing: from basic research to clinical practice". Science 278 (5338): 602–5. doi:10.1126/science.278.5338.602. PMID 9381169. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9381169. 
6. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12677558
7. ^ Allingham-Hawkins, Diane (2008-08-01). "Successful Genetic Tests Are Predicated on Clinical Utility". Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News (Mary Ann Liebert) 28 (14): pp. 6, 9. ISSN 1935-472X. http://www.genengnews.com/articles/chitem.aspx?aid=2544. Retrieved 2008-09-23. 
8. ^ Amy Harmon, "Insurance Fears Lead Many to Shun DNA Tests," The New York Times, February 24, 2008
9. ^ "Genetic Information and Medical Expense Insurance", American Academy of Actuaries, June 2000
10. ^ Hunter et al., "Letting the Genome out of the Bottle" New England Journal of Medicine
11. ^ Gollust et al., "Limitations of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising for Clinical Genetic Testing," JAMA.2002; 288: 1762-1767
12. ^ Shawna Williams and Gail Javitt, "Direct-to-consumer genetic testing: empowering or endangering the public?," The Genetics and Public Policy Center, July 25, 2006 (updated 6/15/2007)
13. ^ Statement of Administration policy, Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, 27 April 2007
14. ^ Kennedy in support of genetic information nondiscrimination bill, Abril 24, 2008. Last access: 28/05/2008.
15. ^ Keim, Brandon (May 21, 2008). "Genetic Discrimination by Insurers, Employers Becomes a Crime". Wired.com. http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/05/the-genetic-inf.html. Retrieved 2008-05-28. 
16. ^ "Administration News | President Bush Signs Genetic Nondiscrimination Legislation Into Law," Kaiser Daily Health Policy Report, Kaiser Family Foundation, May 22, 2008

Further reading

• Anne Hart (July 2003). The Beginner's Guide to Interpreting Ethnic DNA Origins for Family History: How Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Mizrahi & Europeans Are Related to Everyone Else. iUniverse. ISBN 9780595283064. http://books.google.com/books?id=DHBuRpLQaKQC&pg=PP1. 

External links

• GeneTests US National Institutes of Health funded resource on genetic testing.
• EuroGentest European network for test development, harmonization, validation and standardization.
• TECHGENE European project on genetic testing and next generation sequencing technology.
• Genetic Testing Registry NIH information resource on genetic testing.
• DNATest.org Resource about genetic testing.
• Genetic Testing Forum Crowd sourced information and discussion on genetic testing.
• Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15. "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" (PDF). http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf. Retrieved 2011-06-07. 
• KnowYourGenes.org Genetic Disease Foundation
• [1] Genetic Alliance