Dieselisation

Modern diesel multiple unit next to a steam locomotive at Carmarthen railway station in 2007

Dieselisation or dieselization is a term generally used for the increasingly common use of diesel fuel in vehicles, as opposed to gasoline or steam engines.

Water Transport

The two stroke marine diesel engine was introduced in 1922 and remains in use today. It is the most efficient prime mover, with models over 100,000 horsepower and a thermal efficiency of 50%.^[1] The market share of steam ships peaked around 1925 (a few sailing ships remained) and by the early 1950s diesel ships held over 50% of the market.^[2]

• New York tugboats

Rail transport

In rail transport, dieselisation refers to the replacement of the steam locomotive or electric locomotive with the diesel-electric locomotive (often referred to as a "diesel locomotive"), a process which began in the 1930s and is now substantially complete in the US, UK and Latin America. Elsewhere, electric traction has mostly taken the place of steam locomotives in the main lines and diesel-electric and diesel-hydraulic locomotives are used in less frequently used side lines.

The replacement of either steam or diesel haulage with electric locomotives is known as electrification. Whereas the benefit of replacing steam traction is indisputable, there is some dispute as to whether it is best replaced by dieselisation or electrification. Electrification has a high initial capital cost but the operating costs are lower. The overall savings depend on the effect of the investment cost compared with the savings due to lower operational and maintenance costs and the influence of better acceleration and tractive effort on railroad throughput. These are obviously different for e.g. urban networks and very long-distance networks with low frequencies. However, many railway commentators are increasingly suggesting that the ability of railways to operate with electricity not produced from fossil fuels may offer a decisive advantage over diesel power. In some countries, such as Switzerland, Sweden and Japan, electrification ended the use of steam power.

Advantages of diesel in rail transport

Dieselisation took place largely because of the reduction in operating costs it allowed. Steam locomotives require large pools of labour to clean, load, maintain and run. They also require extensive service, coaling and watering facilities. Diesel locomotives require significantly less time and labour to operate and maintain.

Diesel engines have thermal efficiency above 40% compared to about 6% for single expansion steam. Diesel engines also have higher power-to-weight ratios.

Steam engines caused more hammer blow to the rails than diesel engines.

Impact of World War II

World War II led to the development of improvements in internal combustion engine technology that made diesel locomotives cheaper and more powerful. The post-war world also re-aligned the business and financial markets, as did world geo-politics as in the Cold War (1947-1953).^{[citation needed]}

North America

The small initial market for diesels was created by the New York's Kaufman Act of 1923, which prohibited operating steam locomotives in New York City and adjacent towns. Mainline passenger railroads had already been electrified, or their electrification had been planned regardless of Kaufman Act. Electrification of numerous freight yards was uneconomical, and railroads turned to diesels. The first ALCO boxcab was put in operation in 1925 by Central Railroad of New Jersey at its 138th Street^[3] waterfront terminal in The Bronx.^[4] The second was delivered in the same year to Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's yards on Manhattan. Both worked into the late 1950s and survive in museums to date.^[5]

In North America, railroads looked to cut costs in the face of stiff competition from trucks, planes and automobiles. Railroads in America at this time also had an image problem, viewed as archaic, a fact that was re-enforced in the war when retired equipment was pressed into service. This left a lasting impression on millions of servicemen who were delayed for days in often obsolete, uncomfortable cars in obscure locations. Locomotive size also became an issue, as steam engines became so big in the 1940s that the cylinder and boiler dimensions were pushing the limits that the loading gauge would allow. Fireboxes became so big that firing a steam locomotive became an extremely difficult job without the aid of mechanical stokers.

Unlike steam locomotives, diesel locomotives are scalable, with the added benefit of multiple unit (MU) operation (additional locomotives coupled together under the control of a single crew).^{[citation needed]} Use of MU allows longer trains, exploiting economies of scale. Diesels can also operate for greater periods of time before needing servicing, so small division points were closed as operating districts were lengthened .

Diesels slowly gained the advantage. Weighing against the cost of, and inertia against, replacing the large investment that railroads had in existing steam power was the dramatic increase in efficiency of the diesel: The diesel locomotive can be operated by a single person, with no need of a fireman to shovel coal. Also, diesels use much less fuel and no manpower when idling, something locomotives often do. Diesels can be parked running for days unattended, whereas steam engines must be constantly tended to if not completely shut down. Bringing a steam engine boiler up to operating temperature is often regarded as both an art and science, requiring much training and experience. A diesel starts and shuts down just like an automobile. Diesels pro-rate their fuel usage to the length of trains, which a steam engine cannot do. General Motors signed proprietary contracts with the major railroads, who were replacing their worn out wartime equipment, with diesels. With the GM contracts came articles that GM would supply training, facilities and maintenance, while the railroads would scrap their steam engines and remove them from competition. Due to the modern advantages of diesel locomotives, railroads in North America had retired 90% of their steam locomotives by the mid 1950s.^[6][7] Also, major cities and their railyards became unhappy neighbors in post-war America. People were no longer content to endure the mammoth amounts of soot and smoke that coal burning steam engines produced. Early diesels, while dirty by today's standards, were a gigantic improvement in air pollution over steam.

Steam engines lasted well into the late 1950s on major American railroads, and in isolated cases into the middle 1960s on small common carrier roads, primarily for yard duties such as switching. The last steam locomotive fleet in everyday use (i.e. not a restored fleet) was retired in the late 1970s. Now they are only found in historical and sightseeing roles, where the steam engine is once again the star of the show. Retired steam engines, many of which were quite new when made obsolete, often did find a second life in developing nations due to their cheap labor for maintenance and crewing, ready supplies of coal, and lack of environmental concern.

Europe

With the exception of the United Kingdom, the trend in Europe was to replace steam traction in the main lines with electric traction. Diesels were used as an interim solution during electrification and as a permanent solution for side lines with less traffic and as switchers. Electrification is nowadays widespread in Europe. Even in sparsely populated large countries (Finland, Sweden) electrification has proven to be more economical than diesels.

The reputation of diesel benefited from memories of World War II, when military vehicles – especially tanks – using diesel were less prone to burst into flames when hit than their petrol-engined counterparts.^{[citation needed]}

In the United Kingdom the railway companies had been deploying diesel railcars and shunting locomotives for a while before the war, and the south east had an extensive electric network whose reach had grown throughout the century. Other less successful research went into more efficient and easily maintained steam locomotives. War efforts froze developments and progress restarted in 1947. Large scale change began in 1954 as post war financial squeezes ended.

The British Transport Commission produced the rail modernisation plan recognizing the high labour costs of steam and the need to modernise equipment, although catastrophically not the need to modernise working practices. The report made a large number of proposals including large scale dieselisation and updates to freight handling practice, the process being backed by considerable government funding. The last mainline steam traction on British Railways ended in 1968, although the British Rail owned Vale of Rheidol narrow gauge line remained steam hauled. Steam power has since been reintroduced on a few timetabled services, but this is targeted at the tourist market, not efficiency.^{[citation needed]}

Soviet Union

The major disadvantage of the steam locomotive - large water consumption and thus small range from loading to loading - was particularly important in the Soviet Union, especially in steppes and deserts of South Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia where water can be scarce. This spurred work on diesel locomotives in late 1930s, when several machines were delivered and tested.^{[citation needed]}

Nevertheless, the diesel had much less power than the steam locomotive, the issue at the time was the difficulty of producing an engine of large enough scale to power a locomotive.^{[citation needed]}

This was solved after the adoption of an American marine diesel from the Liberty class freight ship, an unusual 10 cylinder 2000 hp design with opposed pistons.^{[dubious – discuss]} After a minor redesign in the USSR, the engine was essentially acceptable for rail use, and was employed in (circa 1950) the TE3 (ТЭ3 - "teplovoz electricheski 3" - diesel engine with electric transmission version 3) locomotive - 4000 hp in 2 sections. The power of the TE3 was equivalent to that of the largest steam engines at the time and given all of the other numerous advantages of the diesel engine, it was decided to abandon steam locomotives completely.^{[citation needed]}

All types of steam locomotives in the USSR stopped production in 1956.^{[citation needed]}

Latin America and Asia

Latin American countries employed their steam locomotives until the late 1960s and 1970s. Some nations, those with less oil reserves, such as India, China and South Africa used steam until the 1980s and 1990s. China and India have now large electrification programs.^{[citation needed]} Russia or the Soviet Union electrified, and steam service ended in the 1970s.^{[citation needed]} Asian nations used steam until the 1970s when those nations modernised.

Timeline by nation

Canada

• Canadian National - first diesel in 1928; last new steam in 1944 (though the Newfoundland Railway last bought steam in 1949, just prior to becoming part of CN); dieselisation completed in 1960. Last revenue steam run in 1970.^{[citation needed]}
• Canadian Pacific - first diesel in 1937; last new steam in 1949 (and last domestic Montreal Locomotive Works steam); dieselisation completed in 1960.^{[citation needed]}
• Algoma Central Railway - First diesel (second hand) 1944; dieselisation begun in January 1951; dieselisation completed in April 1952; First railway company to fully convert to diesel motive power in Canada.^{[citation needed]}

China

• China Rail - last mainline steam built in 1988; last mainline steam operated in 2002. The Wuhai-Jilantai branch ran steam into 2003.
• JiTong Railway (provincial) - First diesel in 2000; dieselisation completed in 2005.^{[citation needed]}
• Industrial - Some steam still in use.
• Tiefa Coal Group/Tiefa Mining Company - Last new steam has builder's plate dated 1999, but supposedly completed 2000. Last new commercial steam in the world.^{[citation needed]} Steam still in use.

Germany

• Deutsche Bundesbahn (German Federal Railways) - large-scale steam production ended 1955.^{[citation needed]}
• Deutsche Reichsbahn (East German State Railways) - standard gauge passenger steam use ended 1977, but briefly reinstated in 1981 due to oil shortage. Freight steam use on standard gauge continued to 1994.^{[citation needed]} Narrow-gauge steam operations continue until today.

India

• Indian Railways

Broad (5 foot 6 inch) gauge - last new passenger steam 1967, last new steam 1970, last steam operation 1997 (unofficial).^{[citation needed]}

Mexico

• Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México (National Railways of Mexico) - last new steam 1946, last standard-gauge steam 1968, last 3' gauge steam 1973.^{[citation needed]}
• Mexicano del Pacifico (Mexican Pacific) - Industrial shortline. All-steam at least to 1991, return to steam 1994.

New Zealand

• New Zealand Railways Department - First diesel in 1936; first mainline diesel 1954; last new steam 1956; last North Island steam operation 1967; last South Island steam operation 1971.^{[citation needed]}

United Kingdom

• National Coal Board - dieselisation completed in 1982. Last industrial operator in UK to use steam.^{[citation needed]}

United States

• Baltimore & Ohio - dieselisation completed in 1960.^{[citation needed]}
• Central Vermont - dieselisation completed in 1957.^{[citation needed]}
• Chesapeake & Ohio - last new steam 1949 (and last domestic Baldwin steam); dieselisation completed in 1957.^{[citation needed]}
• Chicago, Burlington & Quincy - first diesel 1934; dieselisation completed in 1960 (but see Colorado & Southern, below).
• Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific - first diesel 1937; dieselisation completed in December 1952.^{[citation needed]}
• Colorado & Southern - dieselization completed in 1962.
• Crab Orchard & Egyptian Railroad - Steam-using tourist line that added regular revenue freight service in 1977, dieselized 1986. Recognized by the AAR as the last US railroad of any kind to use steam locomotives in regular revenue service.
• Denver & Rio Grande Western (narrow gauge lines)^{[clarification needed]}- ended revenue operation in 1968, never dieselising.^{[citation needed]}
• Grand Trunk Western - dieselisation completed in 1960.^{[citation needed]}
• Great Northern - dieselisation completed in 1957.
• Great Western Railway - steam used at least to 1965, possibly 1967.^{[citation needed]}
• Great Western Sugar Company - last steam operation in 1983. Among the last industrial steam users in the US.^{[citation needed]}
• Illinois Central - dieselisation completed in 1959.
• Lehigh & New England - dieselisation completed in 1949.^{[citation needed]}
• Magma Arizona Railroad - dieselisation began and completed in 1968 (only one locomotive). The last US railroad to dieselise (but see Crab Orchard & Egyptian, above).^{[citation needed]}
• Milwaukee Road - last new steam 1944 (see [1]); dieselisation completed in 1957.
• Monon - dieselisation completed in 1949.
• New York Central - last new passenger steam in 1946; last new steam in 1948 (for then-subsidiary Pittsburgh & Lake Erie, last Alco steam); last passenger steam run 1956; last steam run 1957.^{[citation needed]}
• Northern Pacific Railway - last new steam 1944; first diesel 1938; dieselisation complete 1960.^{[citation needed]}
• Northwestern Steel and Wire - used steam at least to 1980, possibly 1983. Another of the last industrial steam users.^{[citation needed]}
• Seaboard Air Line - dieselization completed in 1953.^{[citation needed]}
• Soo Line Railroad - last new steam 1938 (new), 1942 (secondhand); first diesel 1938; dieselisation effective 1955, but some steam locomotives retained for a strategic reserve. Last company-owned steam locomotive used for railfan trip in 1959.^{[citation needed]}
• Southern Pacific Railroad - dieselisation completed in 1958.
• Southern Railway - dieselisation completed in 1953.
• Pennsylvania Railroad - last new steam in 1946; dieselisation completed in 1957.^{[citation needed]}
• Union Pacific - First diesel in 1934; last new steam in 1944; last passenger steam run 1958; dieselisation completed in 1959, however Steam locomotive UP 844 was never retired, and UP 3985 reentered service in 1981.
• Western Pacific Railroad - dieselisation completed in 1953 (last steam operated on subsidiary Tidewater Southern).

Road transport

Europe

In terms of road transport, diesel gained popularity first with commercial hauliers, throughout the later 20th century, and then with passenger car users, particularly from the 1970s onwards, once diesel engines became more refined and also more readily available in passenger cars. Diesel had by this point long been a popular choice for taxi operators and agricultural users.

In Europe as a whole, Peugeot and Mercedes-Benz in particular developed reputations for high-quality passenger-car diesel engines, whilst VM Motori developed some significant motors for four-wheel drive vehicles.

See also

Alternative fuels

• Advanced steam technology
• Electric vehicle — and the concept of transport electrification
• Hybrid vehicle

Energy policy and politics

• Efficient energy use
• Energy policy
• Global warming
• Oil Shock
• Pershing Map
• golden gimmick

• Suez Crisis

Diesel fuel

• Diesel
• Diesel engine
• Aramco

Transportation

• Baldwin Locomotive Works
• Beeching axe
• General Motors streetcar conspiracy
• Woodham Brothers scrapyard in Barry, South Wales

Spelling

• spelling differences

References

1. ^ McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415147921. 
2. ^ Grübler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport. Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. p. 87. http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf<Fig. 3.1.5> 
3. ^ Solomon, p. 33.
4. ^ Solomon, p. 36.
5. ^ B&O No. 1 at the Museum of Transportation in St. Louis, CNJ No. 1000 at the B&O Railroad Museum in Baltimore - Solomon, p. 36.
6. ^ Grübler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport. Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. pp. 124. http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf 
7. ^ Ayres, Robert; Warr, Banjamin. The Economic Growth Engine: How Energy and Work Drive Material Prosperity (The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis). Edward Elgar Publishing; Reprint edition (October 31, 2010). p. 105. ISBN 1849804354. 

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• Great Western Railway Locomotives
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• Hollingsworth, J.B.; North American Railroads. 1984.
• King, Sammy; Ferrocarril Interoceanico. 2004.
• King, Sammy; Mucho Bueno Sabor --- Mexicano del Pacifico. 2007.
• King, Sammy; Smorgasbord of Steam (Lazy Susan Style) Part 3, Tiefa Coal Group. 2005.
• King, Sammy; Valle de Mexico --- Valley of Memories. 2004.
• Plowden, David; Farewell to Steam. Bonanza 1966.
• Schaefer, Hans; Chinese Railways; last updated Feb 2006.
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• Sydney & Louisburg Railway Historical Society
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