Hand of God (art)

The hand as an isolated motif. Fresco from Sant Climent de Taüll in Catalonia.

The Hand of God intervenes at the Sacrifice of Isaac, Armenian, Akdamar, 10th century

The Hand of God, or Manus Dei in Latin, also known as Dextera domini/dei, the "right hand of the Lord/God", is a motif in Jewish and Christian art, especially of the Late Antique and Early Medieval periods, when depiction of Jehovah or God the Father as a full human figure was considered unacceptable. The hand, sometimes including a portion of an arm, or ending about the wrist, is used to indicate the intervention in or approval of affairs on Earth by God, and sometimes as a subject in itself. It is always an artistic metaphor that is never intended to indicate that a hand was physically present or seen at any subject depicted, and there are no examples of the Hand of God actually being seen in the Bible. The Hand is seen appearing from above in a fairly restricted number of narrative contexts, often in a blessing gesture, but sometimes performing an action. In later Christian works it tends to be replaced by a fully realized figure of God the Father, whose depiction had become acceptable in Western Christianity, although not in Eastern Orthodox or Jewish art.^[1]

The largest group of Jewish imagery from the ancient world, the 3rd century synagogue at Dura-Europas, has the hand of God in five different scenes, including the Sacrifice of Isaac,^[2] and no doubt this was one of the many iconographic features taken over by Christian art from what seems to have been a vigorous tradition of Jewish narrative art. Here and elsewhere it often represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or voice of God, a use also taken over into Christian art.

The hand may also relate to older traditions in various other religions in the Ancient Near East.^[3] Like the hamsa amulet, the hand is sometimes shown alone on buildings, although it does not seem to have existed as a portable amulet-type object in Christian use. It is found from the 4th century on in the Catacombs of Rome, including paintings of Moses receiving the Law and the Sacrifice of Isaac.^[4]

There are numerous references to the hand, or arm, of God in the Hebrew Bible, some clearly metaphorical in the way that remains current in modern English, but others capable of a literal interpretation.^[5] There are three occasions in the gospels when the voice of God is heard, and the hand often represents this in visual art.^[6] Gertrud Schiller distinguishes three functions of the hand in Christian art: as symbol of either God's presence or the voice of God, or signifying God's acceptance of a sacrifice.^[7]

Iconography of the hand

Clothed hand clutching wreath, San Clemente, Rome, 1140–43.

The motif of the hand, with no body attached, provides a problem for the artist in how to terminate it. In Dura-Europos the hand, with a larger portion of (naked) arm than is usual in Christian examples, mostly comes directly from outside the picture space, and the top border or frame terminates it. But in the Sacrifice of Isaac there it is shorter, sleeved, and terminates within the picture space, more like Christian examples.^[8] In Christian narrative images the hand most often emerges from a small cloud, at or near the top of the image, but in iconic contexts it may appear cut off in the picture space, or spring from a border, or a victor's wreath (left). A cloud is mentioned as the source of the voice of God in the gospel accounts of the Transfiguration of Jesus (see below).

The Dura-Europos examples are mostly open-handed, some with fingers spread out, but Christian examples usually form a blessing gesture, if they are not performing an action, though some just show an open hand. The normal blessing gesture is to point with the index and next finger, with the other fingers curled back and thumb relaxed. There is also a more complicated Byzantine gesture which attempts to represent the Greek letter chi, Christ's initial, which looks like a Latin letter "X". This is formed by crossing the thumb and little finger inside the palm, with only the forefinger and next one extended,^[9] or a variant of this.

Especially in Roman mosaics, but also in some German imperial commissions, for example on the Lothair Cross, the hand is clenched around a wreath which goes upwards, and behind which the arm then disappears, forming a tidy circular motif. Especially in these examples, the hand may show the sleeve of a garment, sometimes of two layers, as at San Clemente, Rome. In blessing forms the hand often has a halo, which also may provide a convenient termination point. This may or may not be a cruciform halo, indicating the divinity, and specifically the Logos, or Pre-existing Christ (see below).

Contexts

Visigothic capital with the Sacrifice of Isaac.

The hand is regularly seen in depictions of certain scenes, though it may occur on occasion in a much wider range.^[10] In many scenes one or more angels, acting as the messengers of God, may appear instead of the hand. Many of the early Old Testament narrative cycles are believed to derive from a lost tradition of Jewish illustrated mauscripts. A virtually unique mosaic depiction of the Ark of the Covenant (806) at Germigny-des-Prés, which includes the hand, is believed also to be derived from Jewish iconography.^[11]

In Christian art the hand will often actually represent the hand of God the Son, or the Logos; this is demonstrated when later depictions start to substitute for the Hand a small half-length portrait of Christ as Logos in a similar circular frame. It is nearly always Christ in the East, but in the West God the Father will sometimes be shown in this way. However in many contexts the person of the Trinity intended cannot be confirmed from the image alone, except in those images, like the Baptism of Christ, where Jesus the Incarnate Christ is also present, where the hand is clearly that of God the Father. Later Eastern Orthodox images often identify Hands as the Logos with the usual monogram used in icons.^[12]

Old Testament

• In the Vienna Genesis the hand appears above the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise. More often, God was shown in this story using the conventional depiction of Jesus representing the pre-existent Christ or Logos, who was seen as the Creator by Early Christian writers,^[13] The story of Adam and Eve was the Old Testament subject most frequently seen in Christian art that needed a pictorial representation of God. A well known modern variant of the traditional hand motif is a sculpture of 1898 by Auguste Rodin called the Hand of God which shows a gigantic hand creating Adam and Eve.
• The Sacrifice of Isaac includes the hand at Dura-Europos and Beith Alfa (see above) and is one of the earliest surviving Christian scenes to show it, in 4th century depictions from the Roman catacombs. Abraham is restrained by the hand, which in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus grasped his knife hand, as the angel often does in other depictions.^[14] However the angel mentioned in the biblical text is more usual, and often included as well. The use of the hand in this scene, at least in Christian art, indicates God's acceptance of the sacrifice, as well as his intervention to change it.

Moses receives the Tablets of the Law, and hears the call of God. Paris Psalter.

• Some depictions have the hand passing Moses the Tablets of the Law, found in the Roman catacombs, various Bibles (see gallery), the Paris Psalter, and in mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna.^[15]
• The prophet Ezekiel (2:9–10) received his prophesy by hand: "Then I looked, and I saw a hand stretched out to me. In it was a scroll, which he unrolled before me. On both sides of it were written words of lament and mourning and woe"^[16] and this and other moments from Ezekiel sometimes include the hand. In the Paris Psalter, Moses, Jonah and Isaiah are all shown blessed by hands, from which rays of light come. Other prophets are sometimes also shown with the hand.
• In the Klosterneuburg Altar, Drogo Sacramentary (shown below) and San Vitale, Ravenna, Melchizedek is shown blessed by it, in the last combined with Abel. This relates to the approval of his sacrifice mentioned in the biblical text, and possibly also to the hand's association with divinely ordained monarchy (see below), as Melchizedek was both priest and king according to Genesis 14:18–20, and his appearance in art is often to evoke this as well as his function as a type for Christ.
• The hand can appear in other contexts; the Carolingian Utrecht Psalter atypically illustrates nearly all the Psalms, probably following an Antique model, and shows the hand in at least 27 of these images, despite also using a figure of Christ-as-God in the heavens even more frequently.^[17]
• A mosaic in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna shows the battle of Beth-horon with the Amorites (Joshua, 10:11), where: "As they fled before Israel on the road down from Beth Horon to Azekah, the LORD hurled large hailstones down on them from the sky, and more of them died from the hailstones than were killed by the swords of the Israelites" – with a large hand representing God.
• The story in Daniel 5:1–31 of the writing on the wall is rarely depicted until the 17th century, when Rembrandt's well known version and others were produced. There is an illustration of Belshazzar's Feast in the Jewish Alba Bible, but apparently with no hand.

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  Two hands intervene in Exodus scenes from Dura-Europos

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  Moses receives the Tablets, c. 840

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  In the Drogo Sacramentary Melchizedek is shown blessed by the hand.

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  Andrea Mantegna, Sacrifice of Isaac

Ascension of Christ and Noli me tangere, c. 400, ivory. See below for a similar Ascension 450 years later.

New Testament

• In depictions of the Life of Christ, the hand often appears at the Baptism of Christ representing the voice of God, above the dove representing the Holy Spirit which is much more common, thus showing the whole Trinity as present and active.^[18] The hand never seems to appear without the dove, as the Holy Spirit as a dove is mentioned in the Gospel of Mark: "As soon as Jesus was baptized, he went up out of the water. At that moment heaven was opened, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and lighting on him. And a voice from heaven said, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased."^[19] Both dove and hand are normally located centrally, pointing straight down at Jesus. The hand is mostly found in Baptisms between the 6th (e.g. Rabbula Gospels) and 11th centuries.
• The hand is found in some Western and later Armenian scenes of the Transfiguration of Jesus,^[20] where again the Synoptic Gospels have the voice of God speaking, this time from a cloud.^[21]
• The hand is sometimes seen in the Agony in the Garden, though an angel is more common. This is the third and final occasion when the voice of God is mentioned in the gospels, this time only in the Gospel of John (12:28). The earliest known example is in the St Augustine Gospels of c.600.^[22]
• From Carolingian art until the Romanesque period, the hand may appear above the top of the cross in the Crucifixion of Jesus, pointing straight down. Sometimes it holds a wreath over Christ's head, as on the rear of the Ottonian Lothair Cross at Aachen Cathedral. The hand represents divine approval, and specifically acceptance of his sacrifice,^[23] and possibly also the storm mentioned in the gospels.
• The hand may be seen in the Ascension of Christ, sometimes, as in the Drogo Sacramentary, reaching down and clasping that of Christ, as though to pull him up into the clouds. The ivory plaque now in Munich (left) with such a depiction is possibly the earliest representation of the Ascension to survive.

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  Ravenna, Sant'Apollinare in Classe, 6th century. The upper part of the semi-dome depicts the Transfiguration.

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  Ascension from the Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850, repeats the iconography of the ivory.

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  Mosaic Baptism of Jesus from Daphni, c. 1100

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  Hand with halo in 13th century stained glass of the Agony in the Garden

Divine approval of rulers

The recreated "Hand of Justice" used in Napoleon's coronation, Musée du Louvre.

The hand often blesses rulers from above, especially in Carolingian and Ottonian works, and coins. The hand may hold a wreath or crown over the ruler's head, or place it on the head. A posthumous coin of Constantine the Great (the "deification issue") had shown the hand reaching down to pull up a veiled figure of Constantine in a quadriga, in a famously mixed message that combined pagan conventions, where an eagle drew deified emperors up to the heavens, with Christian iconography. From the late 4th century coins of Late Antique rulers such as Arcadius (and his empress), Galla Placidia and others show them being crowned by it – it was in fact mostly used for empresses, and often only appears on issues from the Eastern Empire.^[24] This theme is not then seen in Byzantine art until the late 10th century, when it appears in coins of John I Tzimisces (969–976), long after it was common in the West.^[25] In later Byzantine miniatures figures the hand is often replaced by a full figure of Christ (in these examples much smaller than the Emperor) placing a crown on the head.^[26]

A similar symbolism was represented by the "Main de Justice" ("Hand of Justice"), part of the traditional French Coronation Regalia, which was a sceptre in the form of a short gold rod surmounted by an ivory hand in the blessing gesture. The object now in the Louvre is a recreation, made for Napoleon or a restored Bourbon king, of the original, which was destroyed in the French Revolution, although the original ivory hand has survived (now displayed separately). Engraved gems are used for an authentic medieval feel. Here the hand represents the justice-dispensing power of God as being literally in the hands of the king.

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  Charles the Bald, before 869

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  Charlemagne, flanked by two popes, is crowned, in a later manuscript of c. 870.

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  Byzantine gold histamenon coin of 1041/2. The emperor is crowned by the hand.

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  The new Bohemian monarchy uses a blessing haloed hand in the Coronation Gospels of Vratislav II.

Other

Dedication miniature in a copy of St Gregory's Moralia in Job, 11th century.

The hand can also be shown with images of saints, either actioning a miracle associated with a saint – in Catholic theology it is God who performs all miracles – or above an iconic scene. In the Bayeux Tapestry the hand appears over Westminster Abbey in the scene showing the funeral of Edward the confessor. The hand sometimes appears (see gallery) in scenes of the murder of martyrs like St Thomas Becket, clearly indicating neither involvement nor approval of the deed, but approval of the saint. In the dedication miniature shown, the blessing hand seems pointed neither at Emperor Henry III, nor St Gregory or the abbot, but at the copy of Gregory's book – the same copy which contains this miniature. This looser usage of the motif reaches its peak in Romanesque art, where it occasionally appears in all sorts of contexts – indicating the "right" speaker in a miniature of a disputation, or as the only decoration at the top of a monastic charter.

In Eastern Orthodox icons the hand remained in use far longer than in the Western church, and is still found in modern icons, normally emerging from circular bands. Apart from the narrative scenes mentioned above it is especially often found in icons of military saints, and in some Russian icons is identified by the usual inscription as belonging to Jesus Christ. In other versions of the same composition a small figure of Christ of about the same size as the hand takes its place, which is also seen in many Western works from about 1000 onwards.

The hand appears at the top of a number of Late Antique apse mosaics in Rome and Ravenna, above a variety of compositions which feature either Christ or the cross,^[27] some covered by the regular contexts mentioned above, but others not. The motif is then repeated in much later mosaics from the 12th century.

The earliest surviving icon of the Virgin Mary, of about 600 from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai, has an often overlooked hand, suggesting to Robin Cormack that the emphasis of the subject is on the Incarnation rather than a simple Virgin and Child.^[28] Another of the very few major Eastern works showing the Virgin from before the Byzantine iconoclasm, an apse mosaic (lost in 1922) from Nicaea, also shows the hand above a standing Virgin. Few similar uses of the hand are seen in later Virgins, though the iconographically adventurous Byzantine Chludov Psalter (9th century) has a small miniature showing the hand and dove above a Virgin & Child.^[29] The hand occasionally appears in Western Annunciations, even as late as Simone Martini in the 14th century, by which time the dove, sometimes accompanied by a small image of God the Father, has become more common.^[30]

Anonymous print on the situation of the Netherlands in the 1570s, with three hands

From the 14th century, and earlier in some contexts, full figures of God the Father became increasingly common in Western art, though still controversial and rare in the Orthodox world. Naturally such figures all have hands, which use the blessing and other gestures in a variety of ways. It may be noted that the most famous of all such uses, Michelangelo's creating hand of God in the Sistine Chapel ceiling, breaks clear of God's encircling robe above the wrist, and is shown against a plain background in a way reminiscent of many examples of the earlier motif.

The motif did not disappear in later iconography, and enjoyed a revival in the 15th century as the range of religious subjects greatly expanded and depiction of God the Father became controversial again among Protestants. The prints of Daniel Hopfer and others make frequent use of the hand in a variety of contexts, and the personal emblem of John Calvin was a heart held in the Hand. Very free use of the motif is made in prints relating to the religious and political fall-out of the Reformation over the next two centuries, in prints on the Dutch Revolt for example. In a high Rococo setting at the Windberg Abbey, Lower Bavaria, the Hand of God holds scales in which a lily stem indicating Saint Catherine's purity outweighs the crown and sceptre of worldly pomp.

The similar but essentially unrelated arm-reliquary was a popular form during the medieval period when the hand was most used. Typically these are in precious metal, showing the hand and most of the forearm, pointing up erect from a flat base where the arm stopped. They contained relics, usually from that part of the body of the saint, and it was the saint's hand that was represented.

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  The oldest Byzantine icon of Mary, c. 600, encaustic, at Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai.

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  Miracle from the life of Saint Remy, c. 870, in the middle register. Note the dove delivering the Sainte Ampoule at bottom.

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  The hand receives the souls of three martyrs born up to heaven by Angels. Ávila

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  Enamelled reliquary of St Thomas Becket, showing his murder. Limoges, c. 1210

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  The Protestant reformer John Calvin and his emblem

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  The Hand of God at Windberg Abbey - see text

See also

• Hand of God – other uses
• Right Hand of God – a placement in the Bible
• Hands of God – ancient Slavic symbol
• God the Father in Western art

Notes

1. ^ Anthropomorphism in the Jewish Virtual Library, especially the section on Jewish art near the end.
2. ^ Hachili, pp. 144–145
3. ^ Summarized by Hachili, 145
4. ^ Hachili, 146
5. ^ Anthropomorphism in the Jewish Virtual Library (see also the section on Jewish art lower down)
6. ^ "in Ravenna and in Western art from the ninth until the eleventh centuries" according to Schiller I, 149, although Western examples of the hand in depictions of these occasions extend well before and after these dates.
7. ^ Schiller, II 674 (Index headings)
8. ^ Hachlili, 144 analyses all the examples from the synagogue paintings; Kessler, 130–131, with illustration. See also the crude mosaic floor at Beit Alfa Synagogue, with a similar hand.
9. ^ Didron, I, 201–3
10. ^ See index of Schiller II under "Hand of God"
11. ^ Beckwith, 14–16. The only ancient Jewish image of the Ark appears to be at Dura-Europos [1], though it also appears as the oldest Jewish bible illustrations surviving, from the 10th century (see Beckwith).
12. ^ For example in this icon, as compared to this one, which shows the Hand replaced with a Christ/Logos.
13. ^ The account in Genesis naturally credits the Creation to the single figure of God, in Christian terms, God the Father. However the first person plural in Genesis 1:26 "And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness", and New Testament references to Christ as creator (John 1:3, Colossians 1:15) led Early Christian writers to associate the Creation with the Logos.
14. ^ Though both hand and knife are now missing, with only a wrist stump now remaining.
15. ^ Noga-Banai, Galit. The Trophies of the Martyrs: An Art Historical Study of Early Christian Silver Reliquaries, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-19-921774-2, 9780199217748 Google books
16. ^ Ezekiel Ch. 2, NIV
17. ^ Utrecht Psalter online – for hands see Psalms 2,5,14,21–23,26,29,40,42,48,53–55,63,77,83,86,105,111,118,123–125,132,136–7.
18. ^ Grabar, 115 & Schiller, I pp. 134 & 137–9
19. ^ Mark 3:16–17 NIV; all three Synoptic Gospels have the voice.
20. ^ Schiller, I pp. 148–151. See also Mathews, p. 96
21. ^ Bible texts and commentaries
22. ^ Schiller, II, 49
23. ^ Schiller, II, 107–108 and passim
24. ^ Catalogue of late Roman coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection: from Arcadius and Honorius to the accession of Anastasius, Philip Grierson, Melinda Mays, Dumbarton Oaks, 1992, ISBN 0-88402-193-9, 9780884021933 Google books gives a full account of Late Antique usage. See also David Sear coin glossary
25. ^ Christian Themes in Byzantine Coinage, 307 - 1204, Zach Margulies
26. ^ Examples here and here
27. ^ One previously at Santi Cosma e Damiano (for example, see Dodwell, p. 5), seems now to have been restored away. Others are in Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Santa Prassede, and others illustrated here or on Commons.
28. ^ See also the apse mosaic of the Euphrasian Basilica, from about the 550s, which has a very similar composition.
29. ^ Schiller, I, p. 7 & fig. 3
30. ^ Schiller, I pp. 43,44,45,47, figs 82, 97, 108

References

• Beckwith, John. Early Medieval Art: Carolingian, Ottonian, Romanesque, Thames & Hudson, 1964 (rev. 1969), ISBN 0-500-20019-X
• Cahn, Walter, Romanesque Bible Illumination, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-8014-1446-6
• Didron, Adolphe Napoléon, Christian Iconography: Or, The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages, translated by Ellen J. Millington, 1851, H. G. Bohn, Digitized for Google Books.
• Dodwell, C.R.; The Pictorial arts of the West, 800-1200, 1993, Yale UP, ISBN 0-300-06493-4
• Grabar, André; Christian iconography: a study of its origins, Taylor & Francis, 1968, ISBN 0-7100-0605-5, 9780710006059 Google books
• Hachlili, Rachel. Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Part 1, BRILL, 1998, ISBN 90-04-10878-5, 9789004108783, Google books
• Kessler, Edward in Sawyer, John FA. The Blackwell companion to the Bible and culture, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 1-4051-0136-9, 9781405101363 Google books
• Mathews, Thomas F. & Sanjian, Avedis Krikor. Armenian gospel iconography: the tradition of the Glajor Gospel, Volume 29 of Dumbarton Oaks studies, Dumbarton Oaks, 1991, ISBN 0-88402-183-1, 9780884021834
• Schiller, Gertrud. Iconography of Christian Art, Vols. I & II, 1971/1972 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN 853312702 I & 853313245 II