- Medieval Roman Catholic Missions in China
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Main articles: Christianity in China and Christianity among the Mongols
The second major thrust of Christianity into China occurred during the 13th century. The Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, began reaching outward from Central Asia, invading neighbouring countries and incorporating them into an empire that at its height included northern China and extended westward to Persia, Mesopotamia and parts of Eastern Europe. The empire was later divided into 4 major divisions, and the eastern-most one was the Yuan Dynasty, which ruled all of China from 1279 to 1368. A political bridge was thereby provided that surmounted the vast wasteland of Asia and eventually brought China into direct contact with Western Christianity.
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Nestorian Christianity among the Mongols
Main article: Christianity among the MongolsBecause the Mongols were known for their religious tolerance, political hegemony and outright patronage, the Nestorians flourished throughout Central Asia. Those who were living on the frontiers of China were emboldened to return. Their subservience to the Mongols meant that they tended to serve Mongol rather than Chinese interests. They located in the key cities along major trade routes in relative isolation from the Chinese people.
When the Mongol threat to Europe was at its height, reports came to Rome of Asian Christians living freely within what they regarded as "a sea of pagan violence". Particularly astonishing and exciting to many Europeans was a vague reference by Otto of Freising in his Chronicle to "a certain ‘Presbyter Johannes’ (Prester John) – a king and a priest and a Christian".[1]
William of Rubruck
Main article: William of RubruckIn 1253, the Franciscan William of Rubruck was sent by Louis IX to convert the Tartars. On his journey eastward, William first met Sartaq Khan, ruler of the Kipchak Khanate, who sent William on to his father, Batu Khan, at Sarai near the Volga. Batu refused conversion but sent William on to the Great Khan Mangu in Karakorum, where he was received courteously, staying there until July 10, 1254, and then returning to the West in 1255. William provided an extensive 40-chapter report describing the cultural and geographical elements of Mongolia, and his observations of the practices of both Nestorian Christianity and Islam in Asia.
At one point of his stay among the Mongols, William entered into a famous competition at the Mongol court. The khan encouraged a formal debate between the Christians, Buddhists, and Muslims, to determine which faith was correct, as determined by three judges, one from each faith.[2]
John of Montecorvino (1294-1328)
In 1271, the Marco Polo brothers brought an invitation from Kublai Khan to Pope Gregory X, imploring him that a hundred teachers of science and religion be sent to reinforce the Nestorian Christianity already present in his vast empire. This came to naught due to the hostility of influential Nestorians within the Mongol court, who objected to the introduction of the Western (Roman Catholic) form of Christianity to supplant their own Nestorian doctrine. In response, in 1289 Pope Nicholas IV sent the Franciscan John of Monte Corvino to China by way of India. Although the great khan had already died by the time John arrived (1294), the court at Khanbaliq received him graciously and encouraged him to settle there. John was China’s first Roman Catholic missionary, and he was significantly successful. He laboured largely in the Mongol tongue, translated the New testament and Psalms, built a central church, and within a few years (by 1305) could report six thousand baptized converts. In 1307, Pope Clement V named John of Montecorvino the first Archbishop of Khanbalik and Patriarch of the Orient.[3][4]
Odoric of Pordenone
One of John’s most vigorous younger missionaries was Odorico da Pordenone (1265–1331), who arrived in Khanbaliq by way of India in 1326. His subsequent sixteen years of unremitting journeys throughout China, preaching the gospel in the vernacular, resulted in over twenty thousand converts.[1] (Some scholars reported that by 1381 the total number of communicants exceeded a hundred thousand.[2])
John of Marignolli (1342-1347)
Main article: John of MarignolliFollowing the death of Montecorvino, an embassy to the French Pope Benedict XII in Avignon was sent by Toghun Temür, the last Mongol emperor in China (Yuan dynasty), in 1336. The embassy was led by a Genoese in the service of the Mongol emperor, Andrea di Nascio, and accompanied by another Genoese, Andalò di Savignone.[5] These letters from the Mongol ruler represented that they had been eight years (since Monte Corvino's death) without a spiritual guide, and earnestly desired one. The pope replied to the letters, and appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the khan's court. At the same time, the Alars from the Black Sea, converted by John of Montecorvino, dispatched an embassy to Rome in 1338 to ask for a bishop.
Rome’s reply was to send John of Marignolli, who accompanied by fifty fellow Franciscans, left Avignon that same year and reached Khanbaliq in 1342. He brought a gift of a Western warhorse to the emperor as recorded in the Yuan Dynasty annals. John of Marignolli left China in 1347 and reached Avignon in 1353. He delivered a letter from the great khan to Pope Innocent VI.
End of the missions
The Missions were of relatively short duration. Two massive political catastrophes also hastened the extinction of this second wave of missionaries to China. Firstly, the Black Death during the latter half of the 14th century in Europe so depleted Franciscan houses that they were unable to sustain the mission to China. Secondly, the Yuan Dynasty began to decline. In 1362 the last Catholic bishop of Quanzhou, Giacomo da Firenze, was killed by the Chinese who seized control of the city. The Chinese rose up and drove out the Mongols, thereby launching the Ming Dynasty (1368). By 1369 all Christians, whether Roman Catholic or Syro-Oriental, were expelled by the Ming Dynasty founded by the Chinese. But it must be pointed out that the Franciscan success was principally with the Turko-Mongols and foreigners, not with the Chinese. The Syro-Oriental Church that had translated a significant body of literature into Chinese was considered too close to the ruling regime.
Regarding mission practice it seems that no translation of the full Bible was ever made into Turkic languages, Chinese or other vernacular languages.
The eventual collapse of the Mongol empire into warring factions, and loss of the flourishing exchanges which the empire had made possible across the region, isolated and weakened countless churches. Widespread warfare, the destruction of water and food supplies and forced migration then frequently ended or crippled the life of local churches.[3] Then a new Turkic-Mongol uprising erupted in the broad reaches of Central Asia under Tamerlane (1387) and menaced both East and West. Tamerlane was a Muslim convert, and he turned with fury on Roman Christians and Nestorians alike. Few survived.
In 1370, following the ousting of the Mongols from China, and the establishment of the Chinese Ming dynasty, a new mission was sent by the Pope to China formed by the Parisian theologian Guillaume du Pré as the new archbishop and 50 Franciscans. This mission however disappeared without news, apparently eliminated.[6]
See also
- Christianity in China
- Nestorianism in China
- Christianity among the Mongols
- Franco-Mongol alliance
- Medical missions in China
Notes
- ^ "La leggenda del Prete Gianni e l'Oriente favoloso". http://www.accademiajr.it/bibvirt/giannicom.html. "Johannes quidam, qui ultra Persidem et Armeniam in extremo oriente habitans, rex et sacerdos, cum gente sua Christianus est, sed Nestorianus."
- ^ Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. p. 173.
- ^ Foltz, p.131
- ^ The Pope also issued a papal bull which designated Mar Yahallaha III as Patriarch of all Eastern Christians.
- ^ Jackson, p.314
- ^ Roux, p.469
References
- Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Longman. ISBN 978-0582368965.
- Foltz, Richard, Religions of the Silk Road, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1
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